COMBINING THEORIES
Trait and factor theory
General trait and factor theory
Work adjustment theory
Holland’s theory of types
Myers-Briggs type theory
Life-span theory
Super
Ginzberg
Gottfredson
Erikson
Atkinson, et al.
Hopson and Adams’ theory of transition
Career decision-making theory
Krumboltz’s social learning theory
Spiritual approach to career counseling
Cognitive information processing perspective
Does NOT fit into one of the three categories
Constructivist approaches
Relational theories
Social cognitive career theory
Sociological and economic theories of career development
Combining Life-Span Theory with Trait and Factor and Career Decision-Making Theories
Super and trait and factor theory
Childhood
Ginzberg – emphasize development of interests, capacities, and values
Super – development of curiosity, exploration, and information leading to development of interests, accurate time perspective, and a self concept
Gottfredson – orientation to size and power, gender roles, social class variables, and self awareness
Trait and factor theory and career decision making theories usually not appropriate in childhood
Early Adolescence
Convergence of life-span theory and other theories becomes murky
Super – career maturity, career planning, career exploration, decision making, world-of-work information, and knowledge of preferred occupation
Erikson, Marica, Vondracek – vocational readiness
Trait and factor theory and career decision making are useful
Late Adolescence and Adulthood
Trait and factor theories – Holland
Work adjustment can be used, but rarely is
Cognitive information processing and Krumboltz can be used
Adult Career Development
Can use most theories except early childhood
Combining Trait and Factor Theories
Can use different trait and factor theories at once
Combining Career Decision-Making Theories
Career decision making theories tend to describe the same process, so would NOT use more than one at a time
The Counselor’s Choice – It’s personal, there is no one way that is better than another
NONCOUNSELING APPLICATIONS OF THEORIES
Screening Methods
Tests or inventories that screen for clients who will benefit from counseling most
Examples: Career Development Inventory; Holland’s Self Directed Search
Paper-and-Pencil Methods
Holland’s Self-Directed Search used with The Occupations Finder and You and Your Career
Computerized Guidance Systems
Adjunct to counseling, interactive
DISCOVER and SIGI PLUS (values emphasized) - follow trait and factor method
Internet
Great variety of career information
Assessment inventories (Appendix B)
Career information (Appendix C)
_ Career counseling organizations
_ Education and internships
_ Job postings
_ Occupations
Ethical issues - Confidentiality and following professional standards
SPECIAL COUNSELING ISSUES
Group Career Counseling
Concepts and materials provided can usually be applied to most group settings
Primary use is to impart information, also to help with exploration and self-efficacy
Not found in individual counseling - motivation from peers, being able to help or be helped by those in similar positions as yourself
Groups can be designed for specific populations
trait and factor theory - select test and inventories - all trait and factor theories can be used
Developmental theory - group by age range - Issues related to Super’s stages
Career decision making - Krumboltz developed the DECIDES group approach.
Cognitive information processing has been applied to career classes
Career Counseling as a Related Issue
When career counseling is NOT the primary concern
Can use Myers-Briggs, work adjustment theory, Super, and Gottfredson for children
Changing Work Settings
The age and ability levels of the clients may determine the type of theory that the counselor chooses
In general, counselors may be less likely to change their theory of counseling when they move from one work setting to another, than to modify the career development theory that they use
Placement Counseling
Many authors have written job search books to help people find a job. Azrin has used a behavioral approach in the development of the “job club”
Holland - different types use different approaches
Myers-Briggs - approach depends on MBTI stage
Super - role salience and stage
Career decision making theory - reinforce job search rather than getting a job
USE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS IN THEORIES
Trait and factor theory rely heavily on tests
Less for life-span theory, even less for spirituality theory
OCCUPATIONAL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT THEORIES
Associated with trait and factor theory
Examples - Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes, DOT, Guide for Occupational Exploration, Occupational Information Network (O*NET)
HOW THEORIES APPLY TO CAREER DEVELOPMENT ISSUES OF WOMEN
Life-span theory addresses issues for women at different developmental stages
Various trait and factor theories address specific issues related to gender
Gottfredson describes gender issues in the career development of children
Sexual harassment is addressed by crisis and other theories
HOW THEORIES APPLY TO CULTURAL DIVERSITY ISSUES IN COUNSELING
Life span theory has studied groups at different developmental stages
Vondracek discusses cultural context of situations
Social cognitive theory focuses on concerns about self-efficacy
Minority development model of Atkinson, Morten, and Sue
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Trait and Factor Theories
Awareness of differences in abilities, interests, values, and personality of client and counselor
Life-Span Theories
Attention to different roles and stages of the client and the counselor
Career Decision-Making Theories
Krumboltz - counseling skills should match needs of client
Spiritual approach - client and counselor’s subjective experience may differ greatly
Cognitive information processing theory - structure of counseling should not interfere with discussion of atypical issues.
Sociological and Economic Approaches
Focuses on inequalities that exist for women and culturally diverse populationsSociological and economic research provides a means for the counselor to assess her own biases
Thursday, November 20, 2008
THE LABOR MARKET: SOCIOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVES
Models or theories have been developed that point out inequities or obstacles in the labor market that may affect the earnings or success of different individuals.
THE UNITED STATES LABOR MARKET
Labor market – serves to fulfill the needs of citizens of a state, a nation, and/or the world.
Job availability is related to the demand of individuals for food, shelter, clothing, etc.
Professional specialties are the group most likely to increase in demand for jobs.
Growth – the need for new workers to meet demands of an occupation beyond the needs that are met by replacing existing workers
Workers leave occupations for a variety of reasons.
Service occupations are projected to have the largest number of openings
A large number of jobs in US do not require a college education.
The amount of education is closely related to income¼, economic value of education.
SOCIOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC APPROACHES
Emphasizes the study of social organizations (psychology (focuses on individuals, not organizations)
Sociology – study the development, organization, and operation of human society. Examine family, cultural, and other social factors that predict career choice as well as variables such as unemployment and pay distributions by industry. Studies the patterns of customs, interactions, and professional development of hundreds or illegal and legal occupations. Ability, interests, and values, and career decision making are studied to predict labor market or work behavior (also for economists)
Economics – study the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Investigate factors such as unemployment, pay distribution by industry, job title, gender, and race (which are related to a person’s career development)
YOUTH EMPLOYMENT
Not a homogenous group, ages 15-24 often used
Girls only make 70-75% of what boys make, less disparity in 12th grade
Differences in motivation for work
Quality of employment is low
Part time work has positive and negative effects on future employment
Students may develop a sense of autonomy
Youth more likely to be underemployed than older workers
THE EFFECT OF THE WORK ENVIRONMENT ON THE INDIVIDUAL
Having an unchallenging job may lead to a loss of intellectual skills
Substantive complexity – the degree to which the work requires thought and independent judgment
Substantive complexity increases intellectual functioning of employees
STATUS ATTAINMENT THEORY
The role of achievement and social status influences occupational selection
Focused on intergenerational change (vertical mobility) and predicting an individual’s occupation from the father’s job.
Found that they could predict the socioeconomic status level of one’s first job from father’s occupation and education
Family status includes father’s job, socioeconomic status, income, education.
Mother’s job is a factor of increasing importance
Culture affects status attainment
HUMAN CAPITAL THEORY
Individuals invest in their own education and training so that they will receive increased life-time earnings
Career earnings – function of ability, education and training, combined with the effort to produce effectively
Education and appropriate job experience lead to desired income
Individual is seen as a firm or company
Endorsement of trait and factor theory – emphasizes role of interests and abilities in selecting an occupation
Criticism – not just about money
THE STRUCTURE OF THE LABOR MARKET
Disadvantaged and underprivileged groups tend to enter different types of jobs from those who are more privileged
Classifies both firms and labor markets into two basic groups: primary (core) and secondary (peripheral) - basic view
A way of seeing a variety of discontinuous segments in the labor market
Hard to move from lowest sector to a higher sector
WOMEN AND DISCRIMINATION IN THE WORKPLACE
Discrimination leads to lower pay, less advancement, and occupational segregation¼leads to working in jobs less prestigious than men
Four determinants of discrimination:
Taste discrimination – preference not to employ members of a certain group
Monopoly model of discrimination – when an organized group agrees to exclude another group from positions
Error discrimination – employers who do not have discriminatory taste but may underestimate the ability of women to perform the same task as men
Statistical discrimination – when an employer applies generalizations about a group of people to an individual
Women have similar unemployment rates as men but move in and out of the labor force more frequently than men.
Women are in jobs that tend to pay less and have less prestige than men’s jobs.
Gender segretation refers to the difference in distribution of men and women in various occupations; this is illustrated by Table 15.3, p. 397
Men are now entering more jobs in the service sector that have been previously held by women
CULTURALLY DIVERSE INDIVIDUALS AND DISCRIMINATION IN THE WORKPLACE
Unemployment rate for African Americans and Latinos in 2003 was much greater than rates for Caucasians and Asians
Relatively few Hispanics and African Americans in high-skill jobs
African American men have higher unemployment rates because of fewer opportunities for less-educated workers.
When African Americans and Caucasian men have similar résumés, African American men at all educational levels experience discrimination
Some firms inconsistent in applying affirmative action rules
Evidence that African American men tend to work at the lowest sector of the labor market
Ogbu differentiates between involuntary and voluntary minorities who differ in attitude towards workOgbu finds that African Americans perceive a job ceiling
THE UNITED STATES LABOR MARKET
Labor market – serves to fulfill the needs of citizens of a state, a nation, and/or the world.
Job availability is related to the demand of individuals for food, shelter, clothing, etc.
Professional specialties are the group most likely to increase in demand for jobs.
Growth – the need for new workers to meet demands of an occupation beyond the needs that are met by replacing existing workers
Workers leave occupations for a variety of reasons.
Service occupations are projected to have the largest number of openings
A large number of jobs in US do not require a college education.
The amount of education is closely related to income¼, economic value of education.
SOCIOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC APPROACHES
Emphasizes the study of social organizations (psychology (focuses on individuals, not organizations)
Sociology – study the development, organization, and operation of human society. Examine family, cultural, and other social factors that predict career choice as well as variables such as unemployment and pay distributions by industry. Studies the patterns of customs, interactions, and professional development of hundreds or illegal and legal occupations. Ability, interests, and values, and career decision making are studied to predict labor market or work behavior (also for economists)
Economics – study the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Investigate factors such as unemployment, pay distribution by industry, job title, gender, and race (which are related to a person’s career development)
YOUTH EMPLOYMENT
Not a homogenous group, ages 15-24 often used
Girls only make 70-75% of what boys make, less disparity in 12th grade
Differences in motivation for work
Quality of employment is low
Part time work has positive and negative effects on future employment
Students may develop a sense of autonomy
Youth more likely to be underemployed than older workers
THE EFFECT OF THE WORK ENVIRONMENT ON THE INDIVIDUAL
Having an unchallenging job may lead to a loss of intellectual skills
Substantive complexity – the degree to which the work requires thought and independent judgment
Substantive complexity increases intellectual functioning of employees
STATUS ATTAINMENT THEORY
The role of achievement and social status influences occupational selection
Focused on intergenerational change (vertical mobility) and predicting an individual’s occupation from the father’s job.
Found that they could predict the socioeconomic status level of one’s first job from father’s occupation and education
Family status includes father’s job, socioeconomic status, income, education.
Mother’s job is a factor of increasing importance
Culture affects status attainment
HUMAN CAPITAL THEORY
Individuals invest in their own education and training so that they will receive increased life-time earnings
Career earnings – function of ability, education and training, combined with the effort to produce effectively
Education and appropriate job experience lead to desired income
Individual is seen as a firm or company
Endorsement of trait and factor theory – emphasizes role of interests and abilities in selecting an occupation
Criticism – not just about money
THE STRUCTURE OF THE LABOR MARKET
Disadvantaged and underprivileged groups tend to enter different types of jobs from those who are more privileged
Classifies both firms and labor markets into two basic groups: primary (core) and secondary (peripheral) - basic view
A way of seeing a variety of discontinuous segments in the labor market
Hard to move from lowest sector to a higher sector
WOMEN AND DISCRIMINATION IN THE WORKPLACE
Discrimination leads to lower pay, less advancement, and occupational segregation¼leads to working in jobs less prestigious than men
Four determinants of discrimination:
Taste discrimination – preference not to employ members of a certain group
Monopoly model of discrimination – when an organized group agrees to exclude another group from positions
Error discrimination – employers who do not have discriminatory taste but may underestimate the ability of women to perform the same task as men
Statistical discrimination – when an employer applies generalizations about a group of people to an individual
Women have similar unemployment rates as men but move in and out of the labor force more frequently than men.
Women are in jobs that tend to pay less and have less prestige than men’s jobs.
Gender segretation refers to the difference in distribution of men and women in various occupations; this is illustrated by Table 15.3, p. 397
Men are now entering more jobs in the service sector that have been previously held by women
CULTURALLY DIVERSE INDIVIDUALS AND DISCRIMINATION IN THE WORKPLACE
Unemployment rate for African Americans and Latinos in 2003 was much greater than rates for Caucasians and Asians
Relatively few Hispanics and African Americans in high-skill jobs
African American men have higher unemployment rates because of fewer opportunities for less-educated workers.
When African Americans and Caucasian men have similar résumés, African American men at all educational levels experience discrimination
Some firms inconsistent in applying affirmative action rules
Evidence that African American men tend to work at the lowest sector of the labor market
Ogbu differentiates between involuntary and voluntary minorities who differ in attitude towards workOgbu finds that African Americans perceive a job ceiling
CAREER DECISION-MAKING APPROACHES
Two categories of decision making models
Descriptive Theories - describe or explain the choices that an individual makes when deciding on career choices; usually based on adolescent or adult decision making. Example: spiritual approach – life and career are related
Prescriptive Theories - focus on the ideal approach to decision making; originate with psychological decision making theory or observations of cognitive decision making processes
Example: Peterson et al.’s cognitive information processing approach
A SPIRITUAL PERSPECTIVE IN DECISION MAKING
See work as a place where one’s spirit can be nourished and person can develop self
Spirit – an essential principle that gives life to physical being
May or may not include a religious point of view
Lifecareer Theory (Miller-Tiedeman)
Sees each person as his own theory maker
You are not looking for a career, you have one¼life is our career
By trusting inner wisdom that comes from your intellectual ability, previous experiences, and intuition into past experiences, you can experience your career
Lifecareer is the dynamic lived-in-the-moment process defined by each person in individual moments
The client decides what works and what doesn’t, not the counselor
Personal and Common Realities
Reality concerns the awareness of one’s career decision-making
Personal reality - an individual’s sense of what is right
Common reality - what others say the individual should do
Spirituality
When individuals experience the wholeness of living; spirituality develops
Seven themes that people can use to better understand their lives and the career decisions that are a part of their lives
Change - when change occurs by chance, it is called synchronocity; can be internal or external; many feelings and emotions
Balance - seek balance; it is natural to maintain balance between work, play, and other activities
Energy - needed in order to bring about change and balance in one’s life; many sources of energy (from others, from self, etc.)
Community - 3 types: (1) communities of companionship – immediate and extended family, close friends, (2) communities of culture – neighbors, classmates, coworkers, (3) cosmic community – those which concern large ideas, such as environment, poor, etc.
Calling - finding one’s ideal work
Harmony - finding the work that will bring about a true sense of appreciation and understanding
Unity - to believe in unity is to trust the universe
A Spiritual Approach to Career Counseling
May seem vague and unclear
Suggestions that can be used by counselors when using Lifecareer Theory
Let client know their career is their life
Client knows what’s working and what’s not; emphasize personal reality
Clients should learn from their experiences and to assess their experiences
Do not let tests and inventories interfere with students’ exploration of educational or occupational opportunities
Help clients set intentions without placing restrictions on them
Be enthusiastic
Help clients become more self-aware
A Holistic Approach to Life Planning - Hansen
Task 1: Finding Work that Needs Doing in a Changing Global Context
Task 2: Weaving our Lives into a Meaningful Whole
Task 3: Connecting Family and Work
Task 4: Valuing Pluralism in Individuality
Task 5: Managing Personal Transitions and Organizational Change
Task 6: Exploring Spirituality and Life Purpose
A COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH
A cognitive approach to choosing careers and making career decisions
Peterson et al. – tried to help individuals understand the way that they think and how that influences their career decision making
Assumptions of a Cognitive Information Processing Approach
Prescriptive point of view - prescribe or suggest ways that individuals can think about career decision making that will improve their ability to make good career decisions
Four assumptions:
1. Both affect and cognitive processing are important components of career decision making.
2. Individuals not only need to know about themselves and the world of work, but also information about thinking and how it affects decision making.
3. Information about self and the world of work is constantly changing.
4. By improving one’s information processing capabilities, clients can improve their career problem-solving abilities.
The Pyramid of Information Processing
Based on Sternberg’s approach to understanding human intelligence; Three basic components: knowledge domain (knowing oneself and knowing about world of work), decision-making skills domain (learn how to make decisions), and the executive processing domain (become aware of how their thoughts influence their decisions)
Self-Knowledge - to learn about themselves, people must both interpret events and reconstruct them; comes from information about previous school performance, previous work, etc.
Occupational Knowledge - people acquire information about the educational system and occupations throughout their lives
Decision-Making Skills - the capabilities that enable people to process information about themselves and occupations is referred to as generic information processing skills; these skills are Also known as CASVE:
Communication – when people get input from within themselves or from the environment, the communication process begins
Analysis – examining the self-knowledge and occupational knowledge domain
Synthesis – when information is analyzed, then people can pursue courses of action; synthesizing information through elaborating or crystallizing what they have analyzed
Valuing – the client evaluates or values possible actions or career directions
Execution – once choices have been evaluated or have undergone the valuing process, then a plan or strategy can be formulated to implement the choice
The Executive Processing Domain – top section of pyramid; refers to higher order functions
Three major ways of decision making
Self-Talk - internal messages that we give ourselves about career choice and other issues; can be positive or negative
Self-Awareness - individuals can be more effective problem solvers when they are aware of what they are doing and why they are doing it
Monitoring and Control - people can monitor the way in which they go through the CASVE process and control how much time they give to each of these stages or phases
Career Decision Making
Decided
Undecided
Being reluctant to acknowledge it
The Career Thoughts Inventory
Three scales:
Decision-Making Confusion - indicates the difficulty that individuals have in initiating or sustaining career decision making; relates to difficulties involved in CAS steps of CASVE
External Conflict - difficulty in balancing one’s own views of information about self and occupations with the views of others; relates to V in CASVE
Commitment Anxiety - fear or anxiety that comes with the difficulty in implementing a career choice and addressing problems in moving from the valuing stage to the execution stage
Career Thoughts Inventory Workbook – includes five sections
Seven-Step Service Delivery Sequence
Seven-step approach to cognitive information processing
Represents a structured model of career counseling that is more organized than most
1. Initial Interview – information is gathered about client’s career problem; rapport; CASVE explained
2. Preliminary Assessment – screening instrument (e.g. Career Thoughts Inventory) is given and readiness for counseling is assessed.
3. Define Problem and Analyze Causes – problem is clarified and defined so that goals can be developed
4. Formulate Goals – together form goals; Goals become basis for Individual Learning Plan (ILP)
5. Develop Individual Learning Plan – together develop an ILP that lists the activities that are to be completed by the client in order to achieve her goals
6. Execute Individual Learning Plan – with counselor’s help, clients follow through on the ILP which is integrated with the CASVE cycle
7. Summarize Review and Generalization – after client has completed ILP, together discuss progress towards reaching goals
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Spiritual approach - Not only use libraries but use job experience and discussions with others
Cognitive Information Processing Theory - Occupational information is at the base of the pyramid of information processing
Analysis and synthesis refers to weighing occupational information
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
Spirituality approach - clients rely on their own view of assessment results; counselors use non-technical terms to describe limits of assessment
Cognitive Information Processing Theory - Find assessment to be helpful (self-knowledge domain)
Career Thoughts Inventory can be used as a measure of readiness for career decision making
APPLYING THE THEORIES TO WOMEN AND CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
Spiritual approach - awareness of wide cultural differences in spiritual view of clients
Attend to not letting societal norms pressure client
Cognitive Information Processing Theory - CASVE is a Western or scientific point of view
Attend to prejudice and stereotyping
Cultural group membership is an opportunity to networking and mentoring
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Spiritual approach - Focus on internal decision-making process
Be aware of different approach to decision-making fo counselor and client
Avoid “shoulds”, attend to client’s personal reality
Cognitive Information Processing Theory
Avoid too much structure
Consider seven step delivery model Decide whether or not to assess career readiness
Descriptive Theories - describe or explain the choices that an individual makes when deciding on career choices; usually based on adolescent or adult decision making. Example: spiritual approach – life and career are related
Prescriptive Theories - focus on the ideal approach to decision making; originate with psychological decision making theory or observations of cognitive decision making processes
Example: Peterson et al.’s cognitive information processing approach
A SPIRITUAL PERSPECTIVE IN DECISION MAKING
See work as a place where one’s spirit can be nourished and person can develop self
Spirit – an essential principle that gives life to physical being
May or may not include a religious point of view
Lifecareer Theory (Miller-Tiedeman)
Sees each person as his own theory maker
You are not looking for a career, you have one¼life is our career
By trusting inner wisdom that comes from your intellectual ability, previous experiences, and intuition into past experiences, you can experience your career
Lifecareer is the dynamic lived-in-the-moment process defined by each person in individual moments
The client decides what works and what doesn’t, not the counselor
Personal and Common Realities
Reality concerns the awareness of one’s career decision-making
Personal reality - an individual’s sense of what is right
Common reality - what others say the individual should do
Spirituality
When individuals experience the wholeness of living; spirituality develops
Seven themes that people can use to better understand their lives and the career decisions that are a part of their lives
Change - when change occurs by chance, it is called synchronocity; can be internal or external; many feelings and emotions
Balance - seek balance; it is natural to maintain balance between work, play, and other activities
Energy - needed in order to bring about change and balance in one’s life; many sources of energy (from others, from self, etc.)
Community - 3 types: (1) communities of companionship – immediate and extended family, close friends, (2) communities of culture – neighbors, classmates, coworkers, (3) cosmic community – those which concern large ideas, such as environment, poor, etc.
Calling - finding one’s ideal work
Harmony - finding the work that will bring about a true sense of appreciation and understanding
Unity - to believe in unity is to trust the universe
A Spiritual Approach to Career Counseling
May seem vague and unclear
Suggestions that can be used by counselors when using Lifecareer Theory
Let client know their career is their life
Client knows what’s working and what’s not; emphasize personal reality
Clients should learn from their experiences and to assess their experiences
Do not let tests and inventories interfere with students’ exploration of educational or occupational opportunities
Help clients set intentions without placing restrictions on them
Be enthusiastic
Help clients become more self-aware
A Holistic Approach to Life Planning - Hansen
Task 1: Finding Work that Needs Doing in a Changing Global Context
Task 2: Weaving our Lives into a Meaningful Whole
Task 3: Connecting Family and Work
Task 4: Valuing Pluralism in Individuality
Task 5: Managing Personal Transitions and Organizational Change
Task 6: Exploring Spirituality and Life Purpose
A COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH
A cognitive approach to choosing careers and making career decisions
Peterson et al. – tried to help individuals understand the way that they think and how that influences their career decision making
Assumptions of a Cognitive Information Processing Approach
Prescriptive point of view - prescribe or suggest ways that individuals can think about career decision making that will improve their ability to make good career decisions
Four assumptions:
1. Both affect and cognitive processing are important components of career decision making.
2. Individuals not only need to know about themselves and the world of work, but also information about thinking and how it affects decision making.
3. Information about self and the world of work is constantly changing.
4. By improving one’s information processing capabilities, clients can improve their career problem-solving abilities.
The Pyramid of Information Processing
Based on Sternberg’s approach to understanding human intelligence; Three basic components: knowledge domain (knowing oneself and knowing about world of work), decision-making skills domain (learn how to make decisions), and the executive processing domain (become aware of how their thoughts influence their decisions)
Self-Knowledge - to learn about themselves, people must both interpret events and reconstruct them; comes from information about previous school performance, previous work, etc.
Occupational Knowledge - people acquire information about the educational system and occupations throughout their lives
Decision-Making Skills - the capabilities that enable people to process information about themselves and occupations is referred to as generic information processing skills; these skills are Also known as CASVE:
Communication – when people get input from within themselves or from the environment, the communication process begins
Analysis – examining the self-knowledge and occupational knowledge domain
Synthesis – when information is analyzed, then people can pursue courses of action; synthesizing information through elaborating or crystallizing what they have analyzed
Valuing – the client evaluates or values possible actions or career directions
Execution – once choices have been evaluated or have undergone the valuing process, then a plan or strategy can be formulated to implement the choice
The Executive Processing Domain – top section of pyramid; refers to higher order functions
Three major ways of decision making
Self-Talk - internal messages that we give ourselves about career choice and other issues; can be positive or negative
Self-Awareness - individuals can be more effective problem solvers when they are aware of what they are doing and why they are doing it
Monitoring and Control - people can monitor the way in which they go through the CASVE process and control how much time they give to each of these stages or phases
Career Decision Making
Decided
Undecided
Being reluctant to acknowledge it
The Career Thoughts Inventory
Three scales:
Decision-Making Confusion - indicates the difficulty that individuals have in initiating or sustaining career decision making; relates to difficulties involved in CAS steps of CASVE
External Conflict - difficulty in balancing one’s own views of information about self and occupations with the views of others; relates to V in CASVE
Commitment Anxiety - fear or anxiety that comes with the difficulty in implementing a career choice and addressing problems in moving from the valuing stage to the execution stage
Career Thoughts Inventory Workbook – includes five sections
Seven-Step Service Delivery Sequence
Seven-step approach to cognitive information processing
Represents a structured model of career counseling that is more organized than most
1. Initial Interview – information is gathered about client’s career problem; rapport; CASVE explained
2. Preliminary Assessment – screening instrument (e.g. Career Thoughts Inventory) is given and readiness for counseling is assessed.
3. Define Problem and Analyze Causes – problem is clarified and defined so that goals can be developed
4. Formulate Goals – together form goals; Goals become basis for Individual Learning Plan (ILP)
5. Develop Individual Learning Plan – together develop an ILP that lists the activities that are to be completed by the client in order to achieve her goals
6. Execute Individual Learning Plan – with counselor’s help, clients follow through on the ILP which is integrated with the CASVE cycle
7. Summarize Review and Generalization – after client has completed ILP, together discuss progress towards reaching goals
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Spiritual approach - Not only use libraries but use job experience and discussions with others
Cognitive Information Processing Theory - Occupational information is at the base of the pyramid of information processing
Analysis and synthesis refers to weighing occupational information
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
Spirituality approach - clients rely on their own view of assessment results; counselors use non-technical terms to describe limits of assessment
Cognitive Information Processing Theory - Find assessment to be helpful (self-knowledge domain)
Career Thoughts Inventory can be used as a measure of readiness for career decision making
APPLYING THE THEORIES TO WOMEN AND CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
Spiritual approach - awareness of wide cultural differences in spiritual view of clients
Attend to not letting societal norms pressure client
Cognitive Information Processing Theory - CASVE is a Western or scientific point of view
Attend to prejudice and stereotyping
Cultural group membership is an opportunity to networking and mentoring
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Spiritual approach - Focus on internal decision-making process
Be aware of different approach to decision-making fo counselor and client
Avoid “shoulds”, attend to client’s personal reality
Cognitive Information Processing Theory
Avoid too much structure
Consider seven step delivery model Decide whether or not to assess career readiness
SOCIAL COGNITIVE CAREER THEORY
Based on Bandura’s social learning theory and triadic reciprocal interaction system
Similarities to Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory
_ Both emphasize triadic reciprocal interaction system (focusing on environment, personal factors, and behaviors)
_ Thoughts and feelings are a part of career decision-making
Dissimilarities
_ Social Cognitive Career Theory focuses on cognitive processes (such as self-efficacy) that regulate and moderate actions
_ Krumboltz focuses on learning behaviors related to a variety of career concerns
_ Social Cognitive Career Theory is more specific and complex
_ Social Cognitive Career Theory emphasizes individuals’ belief systems that affect behaviors rather than concentrate on the behaviors themselves
_ Based on recent and plentiful research
SELF-EFFICACY
People’s judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances
People with low self-efficacy cannot perform as well on a task
Changing set of beliefs about oneself that varies, depending on the context of the situation
Factors include nature of the task, the people and surroundings that people have contact with, and success on similar tasks
Estimates the ability to accomplish something
OUTCOME EXPECTATIONS
When individuals estimate what the probability of an outcome would be
Refers to what may happen
Includes the anticipation of physical, social, and self-evaluative outcomes
GOALS
Set goals that help to organize their behavior and to guide their actions over various periods of time
Goals are self-motivating and the satisfaction with meeting goals is highly significant
CONTEXTUAL FACTORS: BARRIERS AND SUPPORTS
Background contextual factors - occur as individuals learn about and interact with their culture
Contextal influences proximal to choice behaviors (also called proximal influences - current and directly related to career choice concerns)
Contextual factors may be supports or barriers
THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE MODEL OF CAREER CHOICE
Complex; involves interactions between self-efficacy, outcome expectations, goals, choice, outcome, and environmental factors
Circular - concepts indirectly or directly affect each other and continue to do so throughout most of the life span.
Self-efficacy and Outcome Expectations lead to Interests
- Interests that are likely to persist across time arise from activities that people feel they are effective in completing and in succeeding in.
Interest lead to Choice Goals
- People’s interests affect their intent to do certain activities and their goals that relate to activities.
Goals lead to Choice Actions
- The goals that individuals choose affect the actions that they take to achieve the goals
Choice Actions lead to Performance Outcomes
- The actions that people take greatly affect the outcome of their performance
Performance Outcomes lead to Learning Experiences lead to Self-Efficacy/Outcome Expectations
Outcome Expectations lead to Choice Goals
Self-Efficacy affect (Interests), (Choice Actions), (Performance Outcomes)
- One’s belief in oneself is a major force that directly affects one’s career goals, choice actions, and performance outcomes
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Non-biased, accurate, career information important for all people
Information helps individuals develop their own abilities and make good career choices
Education helps individuals increase skill levels and sense of self-efficacy
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
Assessment information helpful to clients to use in making career decisions
Counselor uses assessment information to support clients’ self-efficacy beliefs
Career Decision Self-Efficacy Scale is used to measure aspects of career decision self-efficacy
APPLYING SOCIAL COGNITIVE CAREER THEORY TO WOMEN
Studies show occupational self-efficacy predicts interests and career choice
Women scored lower on occupational self-efficacy for non-traditional occupations and higher for traditionally female occupations
Women see more barriers to occupational success than men.
APPLYING SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY TO CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
Recent research studies barriers to occupational attainment experienced by diverse cultural groups.
Support from the theory with Japanese, Native Americans, Mexican Americans, African Americans, and Asian Americans
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Important for counselors to be aware of their own social biases.
Counselors should be aware of types of barriers experienced by culturally diverse populations.
Counselors should be aware of differences between clients’ outcome expectations and the counselors’ expectations for clients.
Similarly, clients should be aware of differences between client’s goals for themselves and counselor goals for clients.
Similarities to Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory
_ Both emphasize triadic reciprocal interaction system (focusing on environment, personal factors, and behaviors)
_ Thoughts and feelings are a part of career decision-making
Dissimilarities
_ Social Cognitive Career Theory focuses on cognitive processes (such as self-efficacy) that regulate and moderate actions
_ Krumboltz focuses on learning behaviors related to a variety of career concerns
_ Social Cognitive Career Theory is more specific and complex
_ Social Cognitive Career Theory emphasizes individuals’ belief systems that affect behaviors rather than concentrate on the behaviors themselves
_ Based on recent and plentiful research
SELF-EFFICACY
People’s judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances
People with low self-efficacy cannot perform as well on a task
Changing set of beliefs about oneself that varies, depending on the context of the situation
Factors include nature of the task, the people and surroundings that people have contact with, and success on similar tasks
Estimates the ability to accomplish something
OUTCOME EXPECTATIONS
When individuals estimate what the probability of an outcome would be
Refers to what may happen
Includes the anticipation of physical, social, and self-evaluative outcomes
GOALS
Set goals that help to organize their behavior and to guide their actions over various periods of time
Goals are self-motivating and the satisfaction with meeting goals is highly significant
CONTEXTUAL FACTORS: BARRIERS AND SUPPORTS
Background contextual factors - occur as individuals learn about and interact with their culture
Contextal influences proximal to choice behaviors (also called proximal influences - current and directly related to career choice concerns)
Contextual factors may be supports or barriers
THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE MODEL OF CAREER CHOICE
Complex; involves interactions between self-efficacy, outcome expectations, goals, choice, outcome, and environmental factors
Circular - concepts indirectly or directly affect each other and continue to do so throughout most of the life span.
Self-efficacy and Outcome Expectations lead to Interests
- Interests that are likely to persist across time arise from activities that people feel they are effective in completing and in succeeding in.
Interest lead to Choice Goals
- People’s interests affect their intent to do certain activities and their goals that relate to activities.
Goals lead to Choice Actions
- The goals that individuals choose affect the actions that they take to achieve the goals
Choice Actions lead to Performance Outcomes
- The actions that people take greatly affect the outcome of their performance
Performance Outcomes lead to Learning Experiences lead to Self-Efficacy/Outcome Expectations
Outcome Expectations lead to Choice Goals
Self-Efficacy affect (Interests), (Choice Actions), (Performance Outcomes)
- One’s belief in oneself is a major force that directly affects one’s career goals, choice actions, and performance outcomes
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Non-biased, accurate, career information important for all people
Information helps individuals develop their own abilities and make good career choices
Education helps individuals increase skill levels and sense of self-efficacy
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
Assessment information helpful to clients to use in making career decisions
Counselor uses assessment information to support clients’ self-efficacy beliefs
Career Decision Self-Efficacy Scale is used to measure aspects of career decision self-efficacy
APPLYING SOCIAL COGNITIVE CAREER THEORY TO WOMEN
Studies show occupational self-efficacy predicts interests and career choice
Women scored lower on occupational self-efficacy for non-traditional occupations and higher for traditionally female occupations
Women see more barriers to occupational success than men.
APPLYING SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY TO CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
Recent research studies barriers to occupational attainment experienced by diverse cultural groups.
Support from the theory with Japanese, Native Americans, Mexican Americans, African Americans, and Asian Americans
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Important for counselors to be aware of their own social biases.
Counselors should be aware of types of barriers experienced by culturally diverse populations.
Counselors should be aware of differences between clients’ outcome expectations and the counselors’ expectations for clients.
Similarly, clients should be aware of differences between client’s goals for themselves and counselor goals for clients.
KRUMBOLTZ’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Bandura’s reinforcement theory and observational learning
Individuals’ personalities come more from their learning experiences than from their genetics
Triadic reciprocal interaction system – interaction of the environment, personal factors (memories, beliefs, preferences, and self-perceptions), and actual behavior.
Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory shows how individuals make career decisions that emphasizes the importance of behavior (action) and cognitions (knowing or thinking) in making career decisions, teaching clients career decision techniques and how to use them and examines four basic factors to understand why people choose the work they do as well as other occupationally related decisions.
GENETIC ENDOWMENT
Those aspects of the individual that are inherited or innate rather than learned such as physical appearance, predisposition to illnesses.
Some people are born with special abilities in the arts, writing, music, etc.
The greater an individual’s innate genetic abilities, the more likely she is to respond to learning and teaching.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AND EVENTS
Outside the control of the individual
Social, cultural, political, and economic considerations
Also, climate and geography
Social Factors
Changes in society have had a great impact on available career options
Educational Conditions
The availability of education is influenced by both social and personal factors
One’s school system and the effect of teachers are also significant
Occupational Conditions
Little control over number and nature of job opportunities
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
Career preferences are a result of one’s prior learning experiences
Each person’s learning experience is unique
Two basic types of learning experiences:
Instrumental Learning Experiences (H)
Three Components
Antecedents – refers to almost any type of condition; people respond to antecedents with behavior
Behaviors – may be obvious or subtle, may have impact on others
Consequences – may be obvious or subtle
Example: if someone gets an A on an exam, she will be more likely to continue studying in that field than if she does poorly
Associative Learning Experiences (O)
When an individual pairs a situation that was previously neutral with one that is positive or negative, an associative learning experience occurs
TASK APPROACH SKILLS
Understanding how people approach tasks
Task-approach skills – goal setting, values clarification, generating alternatives, obtaining occupational information ¼thoughts and beliefs arise from these
Interactions among genetic endowment, environmental conditions, and learning experiences lead to skills in doing a variety of tasks
How someone approaches a task depends on previous experience and influences the outcome of the task
CLIENT COGNITIVE AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS
Self-Observation Generalizations about Abilities
_ Based on prior experiences and information individuals have acquired about themselves
_ Making accurate generalizations about themselves may be difficult; may under- or overstate their abilities
_ Accuracy of generalizations is related to comparing to others
Self-Observation Generalizations about Interests
_ Generalizations about what you like and don’t like
_ Interests can be very general or very specific
_ Interest inventories are helpful
Self-Observation Generalizations about Values
_ People make judgments about the desirability of certain behaviors or events
_ From these judgments, people develop personal and work values
Generalizations about the World
_ Besides themselves, people make generalizations about the world in which they live and the people around them
_ The purpose of occupational information and experience is to provide an opportunity to make generalizations about the world
Task-Approach Skills Used in Career Decision Making - Skills learned from a wide variety of tasks
COUNSELOR BEHAVIORAL STRATEGIES
Reinforcement
_ Most important technique, with the broadest use, applies to all phases of career counseling
_ Positive reinforcement increases the occurrence of a response
_ Positive reinforcement in terms of verbal praise is important
Role Models
_ Valuable associative learning experience
_ Counselors can be role models or provide their clients role models
Role Playing
_ Examples: information-seeking interview, job interview
Simulation
_ Doing some of the tasks that an individual in a particular occupation must perform; client can simulate a career experience
COGNITIVE STRATEGIES FOR COUNSELING
Goal Clarification
_ Clear and identifiable goals, restate goals
Counter a Troublesome Belief
_ Reframing – method of dealing with troublesome beliefs
Look for Inconsistencies between Words and Actions
Cognitive Rehearsal
_ Practicing or rehearsing statements that are positive, which may replace negative thoughts they may have about themselves
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY GOALS FOR CAREER COUNSELING
Emphasis on learning
Facilitate the learning of skills, interests, beliefs, values, work habits, and personal qualities that enable clients to create a satisfying life within a constantly changing work environment, learning about self and the environment
Three criteria that influence goals of career counseling
_ People need to expand their capabilities and interests, not base decisions on existing characteristics only
_ People need to prepare for changing work tasks, not assume that occupations will remain stable
_ People need to be empowered to take action, not merely be given a diagnosis
APPLYING PLANNED HAPPENSTANCE THEORY TO CAREER COUNSELING
Planned happenstance – taking advantage of chance events in one’s life
Counselors help clients recognize and incorporate chance events into their lives, as well as generate such events
Planned happenstance theory is positive and encouraging (it replaces indecision with open-mindedness)
Five skills are helpful in dealing with chance career opportunities
_ Curiosity
_ Persistence
_ Flexibility
_ Optimism
_ Risk taking
The goal of counseling in dealing with planned happenstance is to initiate a learning process that encourages curiosity and helps clients to take advantage of unplanned events
Four steps to Planned Happenstance Theory – steps may overlap at times
Step 1: Normalize planned happenstance in the client’s history
Step 2: Assist clients to transform curiosity into opportunities for learning and exploration
Step 3: Teach clients to produce desirable chance events
Step 4: Teach clients to overcome blocks to action
Krumboltz’s Career Beliefs Inventory – assesses many of the career beliefs that are potential problems for clients; has 25 scales
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Accurate occupational information is essential to the application of social learning theory
Krumboltz has designed Job Experience Kits - used to simulate occupations; provide exercises that are similar to tasks done by people working in the occupations
Also developed computer simulations of occupations
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
Assessment is not mentioned, but can be useful.
Values inventories can help with planned happenstance.
Interest inventories and ability and aptitude tests can be used.
Krumboltz’s Career Beliefs Inventory can be used at many points in the career decision-making process.
APPLYING SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY TO WOMEN
Women have some control over their environmental forces
Female role models important for women
Unplanned events important in the lives of prominent women
APPLYING SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY TO CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
Not much research
Cultures vary as to which occupations they glamorize or value
Cultures vary as to values such as income or spirituality that they attend to
Collective action can change discriminatory environments
Counselors can help clients deal with discriminatory environments
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Listen to the client to determine the best way to respond to unexpected events
Determine whether the client’s problems fit within the competencies and ethical standards of the counselor
Only work with ethical goals
Individuals’ personalities come more from their learning experiences than from their genetics
Triadic reciprocal interaction system – interaction of the environment, personal factors (memories, beliefs, preferences, and self-perceptions), and actual behavior.
Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory shows how individuals make career decisions that emphasizes the importance of behavior (action) and cognitions (knowing or thinking) in making career decisions, teaching clients career decision techniques and how to use them and examines four basic factors to understand why people choose the work they do as well as other occupationally related decisions.
GENETIC ENDOWMENT
Those aspects of the individual that are inherited or innate rather than learned such as physical appearance, predisposition to illnesses.
Some people are born with special abilities in the arts, writing, music, etc.
The greater an individual’s innate genetic abilities, the more likely she is to respond to learning and teaching.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AND EVENTS
Outside the control of the individual
Social, cultural, political, and economic considerations
Also, climate and geography
Social Factors
Changes in society have had a great impact on available career options
Educational Conditions
The availability of education is influenced by both social and personal factors
One’s school system and the effect of teachers are also significant
Occupational Conditions
Little control over number and nature of job opportunities
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
Career preferences are a result of one’s prior learning experiences
Each person’s learning experience is unique
Two basic types of learning experiences:
Instrumental Learning Experiences (H)
Three Components
Antecedents – refers to almost any type of condition; people respond to antecedents with behavior
Behaviors – may be obvious or subtle, may have impact on others
Consequences – may be obvious or subtle
Example: if someone gets an A on an exam, she will be more likely to continue studying in that field than if she does poorly
Associative Learning Experiences (O)
When an individual pairs a situation that was previously neutral with one that is positive or negative, an associative learning experience occurs
TASK APPROACH SKILLS
Understanding how people approach tasks
Task-approach skills – goal setting, values clarification, generating alternatives, obtaining occupational information ¼thoughts and beliefs arise from these
Interactions among genetic endowment, environmental conditions, and learning experiences lead to skills in doing a variety of tasks
How someone approaches a task depends on previous experience and influences the outcome of the task
CLIENT COGNITIVE AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS
Self-Observation Generalizations about Abilities
_ Based on prior experiences and information individuals have acquired about themselves
_ Making accurate generalizations about themselves may be difficult; may under- or overstate their abilities
_ Accuracy of generalizations is related to comparing to others
Self-Observation Generalizations about Interests
_ Generalizations about what you like and don’t like
_ Interests can be very general or very specific
_ Interest inventories are helpful
Self-Observation Generalizations about Values
_ People make judgments about the desirability of certain behaviors or events
_ From these judgments, people develop personal and work values
Generalizations about the World
_ Besides themselves, people make generalizations about the world in which they live and the people around them
_ The purpose of occupational information and experience is to provide an opportunity to make generalizations about the world
Task-Approach Skills Used in Career Decision Making - Skills learned from a wide variety of tasks
COUNSELOR BEHAVIORAL STRATEGIES
Reinforcement
_ Most important technique, with the broadest use, applies to all phases of career counseling
_ Positive reinforcement increases the occurrence of a response
_ Positive reinforcement in terms of verbal praise is important
Role Models
_ Valuable associative learning experience
_ Counselors can be role models or provide their clients role models
Role Playing
_ Examples: information-seeking interview, job interview
Simulation
_ Doing some of the tasks that an individual in a particular occupation must perform; client can simulate a career experience
COGNITIVE STRATEGIES FOR COUNSELING
Goal Clarification
_ Clear and identifiable goals, restate goals
Counter a Troublesome Belief
_ Reframing – method of dealing with troublesome beliefs
Look for Inconsistencies between Words and Actions
Cognitive Rehearsal
_ Practicing or rehearsing statements that are positive, which may replace negative thoughts they may have about themselves
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY GOALS FOR CAREER COUNSELING
Emphasis on learning
Facilitate the learning of skills, interests, beliefs, values, work habits, and personal qualities that enable clients to create a satisfying life within a constantly changing work environment, learning about self and the environment
Three criteria that influence goals of career counseling
_ People need to expand their capabilities and interests, not base decisions on existing characteristics only
_ People need to prepare for changing work tasks, not assume that occupations will remain stable
_ People need to be empowered to take action, not merely be given a diagnosis
APPLYING PLANNED HAPPENSTANCE THEORY TO CAREER COUNSELING
Planned happenstance – taking advantage of chance events in one’s life
Counselors help clients recognize and incorporate chance events into their lives, as well as generate such events
Planned happenstance theory is positive and encouraging (it replaces indecision with open-mindedness)
Five skills are helpful in dealing with chance career opportunities
_ Curiosity
_ Persistence
_ Flexibility
_ Optimism
_ Risk taking
The goal of counseling in dealing with planned happenstance is to initiate a learning process that encourages curiosity and helps clients to take advantage of unplanned events
Four steps to Planned Happenstance Theory – steps may overlap at times
Step 1: Normalize planned happenstance in the client’s history
Step 2: Assist clients to transform curiosity into opportunities for learning and exploration
Step 3: Teach clients to produce desirable chance events
Step 4: Teach clients to overcome blocks to action
Krumboltz’s Career Beliefs Inventory – assesses many of the career beliefs that are potential problems for clients; has 25 scales
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Accurate occupational information is essential to the application of social learning theory
Krumboltz has designed Job Experience Kits - used to simulate occupations; provide exercises that are similar to tasks done by people working in the occupations
Also developed computer simulations of occupations
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
Assessment is not mentioned, but can be useful.
Values inventories can help with planned happenstance.
Interest inventories and ability and aptitude tests can be used.
Krumboltz’s Career Beliefs Inventory can be used at many points in the career decision-making process.
APPLYING SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY TO WOMEN
Women have some control over their environmental forces
Female role models important for women
Unplanned events important in the lives of prominent women
APPLYING SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY TO CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
Not much research
Cultures vary as to which occupations they glamorize or value
Cultures vary as to values such as income or spirituality that they attend to
Collective action can change discriminatory environments
Counselors can help clients deal with discriminatory environments
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Listen to the client to determine the best way to respond to unexpected events
Determine whether the client’s problems fit within the competencies and ethical standards of the counselor
Only work with ethical goals
Thursday, November 13, 2008
RELATIONAL APPROACHES TO CAREER DEVELOPMENT
ROE’S PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Roe’s Occupational Classification System
The theory predicts occupational selection based on individual differences, which are biological,
sociological, and psychological and specifically focuses on psychological needs that develop between the interactions of the parent and child.
- Roe believed that people in the same occupation were raised similarly.
- Roe developed a classification system that related parent-child relationships to occupational groupings.
- Roe classified early parent-child relationships into three types, each with two subclassifications.
- Roe was more interested in the attitudes of parents toward their children than in the specific ways in which parents behaved toward their children.
The Three Types of Parental Attitudes
_ Concentration on the child: being overprotective or overdemanding
_ Avoidance of the child: rejection and neglect
_ Acceptance of the child: causal acceptance and loving acceptance
Orientation Toward or Away from People
_ The variety of parental attitudes bring about certain types of personalities in the child
Relationship of Parental Style to Occupational Selection
_ Made prediction about occupational selection and how children developed certain attitudes toward or away from people (which depended on parents)
Research Support
_ Much of the research was based on memories¼may be faulty
_ Little evidence that early child-raising patterns predict later occupational entry.
_ Some evidence that different types of activities are chosen within an occupation.
ATTACHMENT THEORY
Attachment theory studies the role that attachments (primarily parental) play in shaping the life of an individual. The relationship that a baby has with others, especially the mother is crucial.
Bowlby – most well-known attachment theorist; studied the importance of
attachment, separation, and loss in human development;
effects on normal children;
particularly interested in how individuals’ sense of being worthwhile and views of their own competence develop along with their views of others.
Role of “attachment figures” was studied.
Three types of responding (Ainsworth, et al.)¼“strange situation” was used
_ Secure Pattern – infant responds to caregiver easily and continues exploratory behavior; interacts well with people and things in the world.
_ Anxious-Ambivalent Pattern – child becomes anxious because parent is inconsistent; child’s view of oneself is full of uncertainty; decreased exploratory behavior.
_ Avoidant Pattern – infant ignores or rejects care; developed a sense of being alone in the world and unable to trust others.
Some Research Observations
Children with a secure pattern of attachment in their first six years of life are more willing to explore relationships with others and more willing to play with objects or animals, activities leading eventually to greater familiarity with their world and the world of work.
Attachment predicted confidence in career decision making in some studies.
Attachment to mother contributes to fuller career exploration.
Roe’s Occupational Classification System
The theory predicts occupational selection based on individual differences, which are biological,
sociological, and psychological and specifically focuses on psychological needs that develop between the interactions of the parent and child.
- Roe believed that people in the same occupation were raised similarly.
- Roe developed a classification system that related parent-child relationships to occupational groupings.
- Roe classified early parent-child relationships into three types, each with two subclassifications.
- Roe was more interested in the attitudes of parents toward their children than in the specific ways in which parents behaved toward their children.
The Three Types of Parental Attitudes
_ Concentration on the child: being overprotective or overdemanding
_ Avoidance of the child: rejection and neglect
_ Acceptance of the child: causal acceptance and loving acceptance
Orientation Toward or Away from People
_ The variety of parental attitudes bring about certain types of personalities in the child
Relationship of Parental Style to Occupational Selection
_ Made prediction about occupational selection and how children developed certain attitudes toward or away from people (which depended on parents)
Research Support
_ Much of the research was based on memories¼may be faulty
_ Little evidence that early child-raising patterns predict later occupational entry.
_ Some evidence that different types of activities are chosen within an occupation.
ATTACHMENT THEORY
Attachment theory studies the role that attachments (primarily parental) play in shaping the life of an individual. The relationship that a baby has with others, especially the mother is crucial.
Bowlby – most well-known attachment theorist; studied the importance of
attachment, separation, and loss in human development;
effects on normal children;
particularly interested in how individuals’ sense of being worthwhile and views of their own competence develop along with their views of others.
Role of “attachment figures” was studied.
Three types of responding (Ainsworth, et al.)¼“strange situation” was used
_ Secure Pattern – infant responds to caregiver easily and continues exploratory behavior; interacts well with people and things in the world.
_ Anxious-Ambivalent Pattern – child becomes anxious because parent is inconsistent; child’s view of oneself is full of uncertainty; decreased exploratory behavior.
_ Avoidant Pattern – infant ignores or rejects care; developed a sense of being alone in the world and unable to trust others.
Some Research Observations
Children with a secure pattern of attachment in their first six years of life are more willing to explore relationships with others and more willing to play with objects or animals, activities leading eventually to greater familiarity with their world and the world of work.
Attachment predicted confidence in career decision making in some studies.
Attachment to mother contributes to fuller career exploration.
PARENT-CHILD CAREER INTERACTIONS
Joint Action – conversations between parents and child
* Focus on how parents and children perceive career decision making and their areas of agreement and disagreement.
* As families talk, they may establish closeness or a sense of separateness depending on the nature of the agreements or disagreements.
*Five-step method of including parents and children in career counseling:
Parent Involved Career Exploration [PICE], designed for students age 14-18, done in one session
_ Introduction
_ Pattern identification exercises [PIE] - Students talk about a leisure activity that went well and one that did not - consider pattern
_ Discussion of school preferences and performance
_ A perspective on education and labor market possibilities
_ Planning the next step
FAMILY SYSTEMS THERAPY
Enmeshed family – responsibilities in the family are unclear.
Disengaged family- responsibilities in the family are dictated by a parent.
Family relationships (such as enmeshment and disengagement) were stronger predictors of career development than gender, socioeconomic status, or educational achievement in one study.
When working with clients who are trying to figure out an occupation, it may be helpful to discuss family career patterns.
Genograms - (drawing relationships of family members) - a good method for examining family career patterns.
PHILLIPS’S DEVELOPMENTAL RELATIONSHIP MODEL
Unlike other relationship models discussed so far, Phillips and her colleagues look at relationships that include friends, siblings, teachers, peers, and others.
There have been previous studies that categorize types of relationships and their effect on career development. Phillips’s work is the most extensive, even though it is recent and uses small samples.
There are two major themes: Actions of Others (seven ways people involve themselves in career decision-making of others) and Self-Directedness (eight ways an individual may participate in finding other people to help in career decision-making).
Actions of Others - seven actions going from low involvement of others to high involvement of others.
1. Nonactive Support - not involved with decision-maker in making choice process
2. Unconditional Support - person thinks decision-maker is making a good decision.
3. Information Provided - person provides information to the decision-maker
4. Alternatives Provided - provide career related opportunities
5. Push-Nudge - attempt to guide an individual in a career direction
6. Forced Guidance - offering suggestions without considering the desires of the decision-maker
7. Criticism - tells a person what to do and criticizes them.
Self-Directedness - an increasing effectiveness of making good use of other people in career decision-making (eight categories)
1. Confident Independence (false confidence) - individuals appear to be confident but have not planned for the future
2. Unsuccessful Recruitment - individuals know they need help, but haven’t been able to get good assistance
3. Insecure Use of Others - seek out advice of others but unsure about ability to make decisions
4. Cautious - very careful not to make mistakes in decision-making
5. Seeking Information about the Self - unsure about interests, abilities, or values, and seek out others for their perspective
6. Weighing Options - ask others to help in one or more parts of the decision-making process
7. Sounding Board - talking out one’s point of view with others
8. Systematic - individuals consider the input of others but take responsibility for their own career decision-making
Individuals can be in one stage in Actions of Others and a very different step in Self-Directedness. Moving from one stage to another, especially in actions of others is often not sequential.
APPLYING THE THEORIES TO WOMEN AND CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
Roe considered cultural and gender factors carefully in her theory.
Attachment theory has studied gender differences but found few.
Family therapy researchers have studied differences in child-raising patterns as they relate to culture and gender, but do not focus much on career development.
Phillips’s theory has not yet focused on culture and gender
Thursday, November 6, 2008
Blog about Storytelling and Career
http://astoriedcareer.com/2005/05/storynarrative-in-career-couns.html#more
This whole blog is an excellent resource for anyone wanting to utilize narrative and storytelling in their counseling practice.
This particular link leads to the first post in a long line of information that is pertinent to this particular subject.
Thank you Karen Hansen, PhD.
This whole blog is an excellent resource for anyone wanting to utilize narrative and storytelling in their counseling practice.
This particular link leads to the first post in a long line of information that is pertinent to this particular subject.
Thank you Karen Hansen, PhD.
NARRATIVE APPROACH TO CAREER COUNSELING
Clients narrate or tell about their past career development, present career development, and construct their future career.
This is an active approach that attends to how clients intentionally interact with the world and learn about it through these interactions.
Focuses on the clients’ lives.
Similar to a play or psychodrama, in which clients enact their lives; career is seen as a story.
Application of concepts from literary criticism
_ agent - client, narrator, author of story
_ setting - where story occurs, also important people such as family, friends, etc.
_ action - designed to reach a goal that will satisfy needs of agent
_ instrument - what agent uses to reach goal
Storytelling
Client’s narration has a beginning (difficult or troubling situation), middle (obstacles and instruments that may be used in working toward reaching a personal goal), and end (counselor and client work together to develop solutions that will provide satisfaction and to reach a goal that will satisfy client).
Goals of Assessment in Narrative Counseling
Counselor is like an editor. Find out what is important from client’s story and what’s not
Identify patterns in clients’ lives
Form a sense of the client’s identity
Learn about the client’s goals for the future
Narrative Career Counseling
Counselor’s role is to help clarify the narrative and help client make career decisions
Counselors should listen for 3 important elements in a story
Coherence (should make sense chronologically or in terms of sequence of events)
Continuity (story should be able to be seen in terms of action that is directed toward a goal)
Causality (being able to explain events)
Cochran’s Narrative Career Counseling
Cochran describes 7 “episodes” or phases in career counseling using a narrative point of view
First three episodes - emphasize making a meaning out of the career narrative
Episodes 4-6 - focus on enactment or being active
Episode 7 - refers to crystallization of a decision
1. Elaborating a Career Problem
Clarify the client’s concern¼fill in gap of what is actually happening to client and his ideal
Ordinary conversation is primary way of elaborating
Also vocational card sort, construct laddering, interest and values inventories, ability tests
Drawing
Anecdotes - short stories that clients tell that help counselor understand aspects of clients’ lives
2. Composing a Life History
Two basic intentions - (1) to gather information about client’s interests, values, abilities, and motives; (2) to attend to the way clients select and organize their life stories
Ask clients to describe important events in their lives and discuss their meaning
Dramatization - counselor becomes the narrator and may refer to the client in third person
Other techniques - success experiences, lifelines, career-o-gram, and life chapters
3. Eliciting a Future Narrative
Clients consider their strengths, interests, and values as they may appear in the future
Focus is on evaluation of one’s strengths, interests, and values
Use same techniques from previous stage, with an emphasis on future
Guided fantasy - descriptive and/or evaluative, often represents an end point (something to help client reflect on accomplishments that he would like to have)
Written and narrative outline - Five sections: mission, strengths, work needs, vulnerabilities, and possibilities
4. Reality Construction
Taking action in the world of work; three purposes to active exploration:
(1) Immerses client in the real world
(2) Clients get information from a variety of sources and are able to evaluate the information as they talk to many sources
(3) Can imagine themselves in an occupation
5. Changing a Life Structure
Change in situation, oneself, or both
Clients often expect to make a change in the way they work or who they work with
New opportunities arise (e.g. salary increase, training, etc.); also negative aspects (e.g. fear of failing, anxiety about doing a poor job)
6. Enacting a Role
Trying things out to make one’s desired goals possible
Some start with a small role which may lead to larger ones
7. Crystallizing a Decision
Occurs when a gap between a client’s career problem and the ideal or possible solutions diminishes. Sometimes takes place when clients experience the previous six episodes.
Can be facilitated in three ways:
Identifying and eliminating obstructions
Actualizing opportunities
Reflecting on career decisions
Internal obstructions (lack of confidence in being able to obtain a job) to crystallizing vs. external obstructions (pressures from parents to enter a certain occupation)
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT
Inventories and assessments play a small role in constructivist career counseling¼since clients see their own realities. Tests and inventories can be used for all individuals (but will not help in understanding the perceptual world of the client)
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Can integrate occupational information in reptest, laddering, and vocational card sort and other techniques
APPLYING THE THEORIES TO WOMEN AND CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
Culture and gender interact within the context of client actions; stories or histories exist within a cultural context. How one views an action can have varying cultural interpretations.
Gender and culture guide how people develop attitudes, skills, and values
Young and colleagues have studied career projects in adolescence by studying pairs of adolescents and parents. A career project is a series of actions that adolescents and their parents take that is related to the adolescent’s choice of career.
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Counselors should be aware of their own perceptions of reality.
Understand the relationship fo the counselor’s constructs to those of the client.
This is an active approach that attends to how clients intentionally interact with the world and learn about it through these interactions.
Focuses on the clients’ lives.
Similar to a play or psychodrama, in which clients enact their lives; career is seen as a story.
Application of concepts from literary criticism
_ agent - client, narrator, author of story
_ setting - where story occurs, also important people such as family, friends, etc.
_ action - designed to reach a goal that will satisfy needs of agent
_ instrument - what agent uses to reach goal
Storytelling
Client’s narration has a beginning (difficult or troubling situation), middle (obstacles and instruments that may be used in working toward reaching a personal goal), and end (counselor and client work together to develop solutions that will provide satisfaction and to reach a goal that will satisfy client).
Goals of Assessment in Narrative Counseling
Counselor is like an editor. Find out what is important from client’s story and what’s not
Identify patterns in clients’ lives
Form a sense of the client’s identity
Learn about the client’s goals for the future
Narrative Career Counseling
Counselor’s role is to help clarify the narrative and help client make career decisions
Counselors should listen for 3 important elements in a story
Coherence (should make sense chronologically or in terms of sequence of events)
Continuity (story should be able to be seen in terms of action that is directed toward a goal)
Causality (being able to explain events)
Cochran’s Narrative Career Counseling
Cochran describes 7 “episodes” or phases in career counseling using a narrative point of view
First three episodes - emphasize making a meaning out of the career narrative
Episodes 4-6 - focus on enactment or being active
Episode 7 - refers to crystallization of a decision
1. Elaborating a Career Problem
Clarify the client’s concern¼fill in gap of what is actually happening to client and his ideal
Ordinary conversation is primary way of elaborating
Also vocational card sort, construct laddering, interest and values inventories, ability tests
Drawing
Anecdotes - short stories that clients tell that help counselor understand aspects of clients’ lives
2. Composing a Life History
Two basic intentions - (1) to gather information about client’s interests, values, abilities, and motives; (2) to attend to the way clients select and organize their life stories
Ask clients to describe important events in their lives and discuss their meaning
Dramatization - counselor becomes the narrator and may refer to the client in third person
Other techniques - success experiences, lifelines, career-o-gram, and life chapters
3. Eliciting a Future Narrative
Clients consider their strengths, interests, and values as they may appear in the future
Focus is on evaluation of one’s strengths, interests, and values
Use same techniques from previous stage, with an emphasis on future
Guided fantasy - descriptive and/or evaluative, often represents an end point (something to help client reflect on accomplishments that he would like to have)
Written and narrative outline - Five sections: mission, strengths, work needs, vulnerabilities, and possibilities
4. Reality Construction
Taking action in the world of work; three purposes to active exploration:
(1) Immerses client in the real world
(2) Clients get information from a variety of sources and are able to evaluate the information as they talk to many sources
(3) Can imagine themselves in an occupation
5. Changing a Life Structure
Change in situation, oneself, or both
Clients often expect to make a change in the way they work or who they work with
New opportunities arise (e.g. salary increase, training, etc.); also negative aspects (e.g. fear of failing, anxiety about doing a poor job)
6. Enacting a Role
Trying things out to make one’s desired goals possible
Some start with a small role which may lead to larger ones
7. Crystallizing a Decision
Occurs when a gap between a client’s career problem and the ideal or possible solutions diminishes. Sometimes takes place when clients experience the previous six episodes.
Can be facilitated in three ways:
Identifying and eliminating obstructions
Actualizing opportunities
Reflecting on career decisions
Internal obstructions (lack of confidence in being able to obtain a job) to crystallizing vs. external obstructions (pressures from parents to enter a certain occupation)
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT
Inventories and assessments play a small role in constructivist career counseling¼since clients see their own realities. Tests and inventories can be used for all individuals (but will not help in understanding the perceptual world of the client)
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Can integrate occupational information in reptest, laddering, and vocational card sort and other techniques
APPLYING THE THEORIES TO WOMEN AND CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
Culture and gender interact within the context of client actions; stories or histories exist within a cultural context. How one views an action can have varying cultural interpretations.
Gender and culture guide how people develop attitudes, skills, and values
Young and colleagues have studied career projects in adolescence by studying pairs of adolescents and parents. A career project is a series of actions that adolescents and their parents take that is related to the adolescent’s choice of career.
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Counselors should be aware of their own perceptions of reality.
Understand the relationship fo the counselor’s constructs to those of the client.
CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH TO CAREER DEVELOPMENT
Constructivism - Psychological approach that has developed out of a philosophical position, postmodernism, which believes that individuals construct or perceive their own reality or truth, and that there is no fixed truth.
_ Related to postmodernism
_ View individuals as creating their own views of events and relationships in their lives
_ Constructivist counselors help clients see problems as meaningful options that are no longer helpful
_ Constructivist counselors deal with the ways in which their clients impose their own order on their problems and how they derive meanings from their experiences with others
Postmodernism - Reaction to modernism, which takes a rationalist approach that emphasizes scientific proof and is a reflection of advances in technology and science
_ Reflects a multiculturally diverse world in which different individuals can have their own construct or view of what is real for them
PERSONAL CONSTRUCT PSYCHOLOGY
_ Most closely related to the work of George Kelly (The Psychology of Personal Constructs)
_ Constructive alternativism - individuals view the world differently from each other, to make sense of the world, people develop constructs or theories toward viewing people and events
_ Individuals behave as scientists predicting events by advancing theories about them and then testing the theories, constructs are continually modified to enhance predictions
Constructs
Bipolar-reflecting opposites (e.g. smart vs. stupid)
Not all constructs are applied to all events
Constructs are arranged in terms of how meaningful they are to individuals
Can be grouped into themes (e.g. related to the work role and to vocational choice)
Not events, but perception of events
Vocational construct system
_ Helps individuals to find a purpose in work
_ Control how they work
_ Evaluate the choices they make and the work that they do
_ Develop a sense of identity through work
_ Changes as an individual develops
Assessment and Counseling Strategies
Techniques that help assess clients’ perceptions of constructs about themselves and the occupational world are likely to lead to new constructs and the development of themes
Counselor interacts in a very collaborative way with the client
The Vocational Reptest
Most used instrument in construct theory
“Role Construct Repertory Test” is the full name
Client provides much of the information used in the reptest
Clients describe constructs related to occupations
Client is asked to compare and contrast various sets of items (e.g. occupations)
After comparing occupations, client would be asked to rate them
Requires time devoted to writing, ranking, and scoring
Laddering Technique
A means of determining which constructs are most important to clients
Helps identify the relative importance of the constructs within their system of constructs
Starts with choosing three occupations and then developing constructs about them by asking questions about them
Counselor continues to focus on questions about constructs as he moves up the “ladder”
Helps to clarify own feelings
Vocational Card Sort
VCS is a group of 60 to 100 cards with the name of an occupation on one side and information about the occupation on the other side
Clients are asked to sort the cards in three groups
_ Occupations one would consider or find acceptable
_ Those that one would not choose
_ Those that one is uncertain about
Then client must divide the three piles in any way by placing the cards in groups that have common reasons for acceptance or rejection
Counselor is attempting to determine the values or constructs that are important.
_ Related to postmodernism
_ View individuals as creating their own views of events and relationships in their lives
_ Constructivist counselors help clients see problems as meaningful options that are no longer helpful
_ Constructivist counselors deal with the ways in which their clients impose their own order on their problems and how they derive meanings from their experiences with others
Postmodernism - Reaction to modernism, which takes a rationalist approach that emphasizes scientific proof and is a reflection of advances in technology and science
_ Reflects a multiculturally diverse world in which different individuals can have their own construct or view of what is real for them
PERSONAL CONSTRUCT PSYCHOLOGY
_ Most closely related to the work of George Kelly (The Psychology of Personal Constructs)
_ Constructive alternativism - individuals view the world differently from each other, to make sense of the world, people develop constructs or theories toward viewing people and events
_ Individuals behave as scientists predicting events by advancing theories about them and then testing the theories, constructs are continually modified to enhance predictions
Constructs
Bipolar-reflecting opposites (e.g. smart vs. stupid)
Not all constructs are applied to all events
Constructs are arranged in terms of how meaningful they are to individuals
Can be grouped into themes (e.g. related to the work role and to vocational choice)
Not events, but perception of events
Vocational construct system
_ Helps individuals to find a purpose in work
_ Control how they work
_ Evaluate the choices they make and the work that they do
_ Develop a sense of identity through work
_ Changes as an individual develops
Assessment and Counseling Strategies
Techniques that help assess clients’ perceptions of constructs about themselves and the occupational world are likely to lead to new constructs and the development of themes
Counselor interacts in a very collaborative way with the client
The Vocational Reptest
Most used instrument in construct theory
“Role Construct Repertory Test” is the full name
Client provides much of the information used in the reptest
Clients describe constructs related to occupations
Client is asked to compare and contrast various sets of items (e.g. occupations)
After comparing occupations, client would be asked to rate them
Requires time devoted to writing, ranking, and scoring
Laddering Technique
A means of determining which constructs are most important to clients
Helps identify the relative importance of the constructs within their system of constructs
Starts with choosing three occupations and then developing constructs about them by asking questions about them
Counselor continues to focus on questions about constructs as he moves up the “ladder”
Helps to clarify own feelings
Vocational Card Sort
VCS is a group of 60 to 100 cards with the name of an occupation on one side and information about the occupation on the other side
Clients are asked to sort the cards in three groups
_ Occupations one would consider or find acceptable
_ Those that one would not choose
_ Those that one is uncertain about
Then client must divide the three piles in any way by placing the cards in groups that have common reasons for acceptance or rejection
Counselor is attempting to determine the values or constructs that are important.
Thursday, October 30, 2008
Questions to consider in facing a career change
1. How would you describe your career path so far?
2. How has a company change affected you? How did it make you feel?
3. Have you experienced any failure in your career? If so, what did it lead to?
4. What were your childhood goals and ambition for life? Which have you been able to fulfill?
5. Who are two people you know who seem to have accomplished their dreams? What do you remember about their accomplishments?
6. What do you imagine your retirement will be like?
If you are facing a career change, I recommend this excellent book by Dan Miller (Miller 2007).
2. How has a company change affected you? How did it make you feel?
3. Have you experienced any failure in your career? If so, what did it lead to?
4. What were your childhood goals and ambition for life? Which have you been able to fulfill?
5. Who are two people you know who seem to have accomplished their dreams? What do you remember about their accomplishments?
6. What do you imagine your retirement will be like?
If you are facing a career change, I recommend this excellent book by Dan Miller (Miller 2007).
Handling a Crisis
A crisis can be a very scary thing. As many of us are aware, the present social climate of uncertainty can lead to fear and apprehension in addition to whatever unique problems we might each be facing.
There is a clever, but mistakenly contrived idea that a crisis = danger + opportunity and that there is a Chinese character that represents just that idea. This is simply not true. Either the "fact" of the Chinese character or the idea that we should consider a crisis to be an opportunity.
On count one, please visit this excellent webpage on the Chinese language.
On count two, a crisis begins when the unexpected leads to fear and apprehension. Now it could begin a lot sooner that that. However, we may not have any control over the beginnings of a crisis. What we do have some measure of control over is how we handle the crisis and whether we let fear and apprehension drag us down.
Crisis does not equal danger plus opportunity. In fact, a crisis, and how we handle a crisis, can prevent us from benefiting from the opportunities that are always there.
The First Century Roman philosopher Seneca said, “Sometimes even to live is an act of courage.” Life is not easy. If life has been easy for you, you may be caught by surprise when a true crisis arises. As Viktor Frankl said, the courage to live comes from finding meaning in your suffering.
Seneca also said, “Luck is what happens when preparation meets opportunity.”
The first step in handling a crisis is to realize that you are in danger. Ask yourself, "What is at stake here?"
Consider the statement, "All progress requires change, but not all change is progress."
Progress happens when we face our struggles and suffering with a sense of purpose, and more precisely, with a plan. Do not let fear and apprehension prevent you from having hope for tomorrow.
For those who are experiencing change and especially for those who are facing a crisis, the discouragement, frustration, and resentment you may feel can put an obstacle in the way of embracing what is truly important to you. Getting stuck in these feelings is a result of looking backwards, at something that has already occured.
As soon as we create a clear, meaningful plan for the future, those feelings dissolve and are replaced with enthusiasm, optimism, and hope.
It has been proven that negative thoughts and feelings have no power against a sense of purpose and a clear plan for the future. Look boldly at whatever you are facing and create a plan of action that will turn hopelessness and "bad luck" into meaningful action.
Again, opportunity is always there, but is difficult to benefit from it without preparation and a sense of purpose.
There is a clever, but mistakenly contrived idea that a crisis = danger + opportunity and that there is a Chinese character that represents just that idea. This is simply not true. Either the "fact" of the Chinese character or the idea that we should consider a crisis to be an opportunity.
On count one, please visit this excellent webpage on the Chinese language.
On count two, a crisis begins when the unexpected leads to fear and apprehension. Now it could begin a lot sooner that that. However, we may not have any control over the beginnings of a crisis. What we do have some measure of control over is how we handle the crisis and whether we let fear and apprehension drag us down.
Crisis does not equal danger plus opportunity. In fact, a crisis, and how we handle a crisis, can prevent us from benefiting from the opportunities that are always there.
The First Century Roman philosopher Seneca said, “Sometimes even to live is an act of courage.” Life is not easy. If life has been easy for you, you may be caught by surprise when a true crisis arises. As Viktor Frankl said, the courage to live comes from finding meaning in your suffering.
Seneca also said, “Luck is what happens when preparation meets opportunity.”
The first step in handling a crisis is to realize that you are in danger. Ask yourself, "What is at stake here?"
Consider the statement, "All progress requires change, but not all change is progress."
Progress happens when we face our struggles and suffering with a sense of purpose, and more precisely, with a plan. Do not let fear and apprehension prevent you from having hope for tomorrow.
For those who are experiencing change and especially for those who are facing a crisis, the discouragement, frustration, and resentment you may feel can put an obstacle in the way of embracing what is truly important to you. Getting stuck in these feelings is a result of looking backwards, at something that has already occured.
As soon as we create a clear, meaningful plan for the future, those feelings dissolve and are replaced with enthusiasm, optimism, and hope.
It has been proven that negative thoughts and feelings have no power against a sense of purpose and a clear plan for the future. Look boldly at whatever you are facing and create a plan of action that will turn hopelessness and "bad luck" into meaningful action.
Again, opportunity is always there, but is difficult to benefit from it without preparation and a sense of purpose.
CAREER CRISES AFFECTING CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
Discrimination is well documented as a major problem for members of minority groups in their career development
When discrimination occurs, person is more likely to face a crisis
Atkinson, Morten, and Sue’s model can be applied here.
Atkinson, Morten, and Sue’s Identity Development Model
Conformity
Dissonance
Resistance and immersion
Introspection
Synergetic articulation and awareness
When discrimination occurs, person is more likely to face a crisis
Atkinson, Morten, and Sue’s model can be applied here.
Atkinson, Morten, and Sue’s Identity Development Model
Conformity
Dissonance
Resistance and immersion
Introspection
Synergetic articulation and awareness
CAREER CRISES AFFECTING WOMEN
Three general types of career crises more likely to affect women than men
1. Experiencing discrimination – usually unanticipated and involuntary
2. Making decisions based on child-raising and family issues –
most times anticipated and voluntary, but not always
3. Facing sexual harassment – dramatic, unanticipated, and involuntary
Temporary Re-entry into and Leave-taking from the Labor Force
Women may follow a large variety of patterns in going in and out of the labor force (e.g. maternity leave, marriage, divorce, death of a husband)
Sometimes can be traumatic, particularly if because of divorce or death of husband
Sexual Harassment
May be an unanticipated, involuntary crisis that threatens one’s career and psychological health
Definition: form of sexual discrimination that includes sexual threats, sexual bribery, sexual jokes or comments, or touching that interferes with a person doing her job.
Till’s 5 levels of sexual harassment:
• Level 1: Gender Harassment – verbal remarks or non-touching behaviors that are sexual in nature
• Level 2: Seductive Behavior – inappropriate sexual advances
• Level 3: Sexual Bribery – request for sexual activity in turn for some kind of reward
• Level 4: Sexual Coercion – individual is coerced into sexual activity by threat of punishment
• Level 5: Sexual Assault – forceful attempts to touch, grab, fondle
Adult women who are sexually harassed – 16% to 90%; other studies – 25% to 50%, most cases are the least severe level
How do victims respond? Fitzgerald and Ormerod summarize reaction into 2 major categories:
Internally focused strategies
• Minimizing a behavior or denying it is really offensive
• Putting up with harassment
• Excusing the offender
• Taking responsibility for the incident
Externally focused strategies
• Avoiding or placating the harasser
• Confronting the harasser and telling him the behavior is unwanted
• Getting support from the institution
• Getting social support from friends and family
Gutek and Koss’ 4 stages of reacting to sexual harassment
• Confusion and Self-Blame – individual assumes responsibility
• Fear and Anxiety – fear for career and safety
• Depression and Anger – when a woman realizes she is not responsible for harassment, she may become more angry
• Disillusionment – even if she charges harasser, process is long and arduous and may not always have a successful outcome
1. Experiencing discrimination – usually unanticipated and involuntary
2. Making decisions based on child-raising and family issues –
most times anticipated and voluntary, but not always
3. Facing sexual harassment – dramatic, unanticipated, and involuntary
Temporary Re-entry into and Leave-taking from the Labor Force
Women may follow a large variety of patterns in going in and out of the labor force (e.g. maternity leave, marriage, divorce, death of a husband)
Sometimes can be traumatic, particularly if because of divorce or death of husband
Sexual Harassment
May be an unanticipated, involuntary crisis that threatens one’s career and psychological health
Definition: form of sexual discrimination that includes sexual threats, sexual bribery, sexual jokes or comments, or touching that interferes with a person doing her job.
Till’s 5 levels of sexual harassment:
• Level 1: Gender Harassment – verbal remarks or non-touching behaviors that are sexual in nature
• Level 2: Seductive Behavior – inappropriate sexual advances
• Level 3: Sexual Bribery – request for sexual activity in turn for some kind of reward
• Level 4: Sexual Coercion – individual is coerced into sexual activity by threat of punishment
• Level 5: Sexual Assault – forceful attempts to touch, grab, fondle
Adult women who are sexually harassed – 16% to 90%; other studies – 25% to 50%, most cases are the least severe level
How do victims respond? Fitzgerald and Ormerod summarize reaction into 2 major categories:
Internally focused strategies
• Minimizing a behavior or denying it is really offensive
• Putting up with harassment
• Excusing the offender
• Taking responsibility for the incident
Externally focused strategies
• Avoiding or placating the harasser
• Confronting the harasser and telling him the behavior is unwanted
• Getting support from the institution
• Getting social support from friends and family
Gutek and Koss’ 4 stages of reacting to sexual harassment
• Confusion and Self-Blame – individual assumes responsibility
• Fear and Anxiety – fear for career and safety
• Depression and Anger – when a woman realizes she is not responsible for harassment, she may become more angry
• Disillusionment – even if she charges harasser, process is long and arduous and may not always have a successful outcome
ADULT CAREER CRISES AND TRANSITIONS
Transition – from a stage point of view, it is the movement from one stage to another, may be smooth
Crisis – more negative term, a situation in which a person has to develop new methods of dealing with a problem that has arisen rather suddenly and may be disorienting
TYPES OF TRANSITIONS
Schlossberg’s 4 types of transitions:
_ Anticipated -happens in the lifespan of most people
e.g. graduation, marriage, starting a job, retirement
_ Unanticipated - unexpected events, such as death of a family member, being fired or transferred
_ “Chronic hassles” - situations such as a long commute to work, an unreasonable supervisor
_ Nonevents (events that don’t happen) - an event that someone wishes to happen, but never occurs e.g. a promotion that never happens; for women: not being able to leave or enter the workforce easily
Hopson and Adams class of transitions:
voluntary - e.g. quitting one job to do another
involuntary - e.g. being fired or laid off
CATEGORIES OF CAREER TRANSITIONS
Career events are classified into three areas (Schlossberg):
1. Normative role transitions
Anticipated and voluntary (e.g. starting your first full-time job)
Occurs in Super’s exploration stage
Become crises when not anticipated
Louis’s 5 categories of normative transitions that people experience in work roles similar to Marvis and Hall’s “boundaryless” careers:
• Entering or reentering a labor pool
• Taking on a different role in an organization
• Moving from one organization to another
• Changing professions
• Leaving the labor pool
Career Transitions Inventory – to assess how well people believe they have made career transitions; 5 subscales:
• Readiness – how motivated you are to make a career transition
• Confidence – one’s sense of self-efficacy in being able to make a successful transition
• Control – degree to which people feel they can make their own decisions
• Perceived Support – how much support people feel they get from their friends and family
• Decision Independence – the extent to which people make decisions based primarily on their own needs or whether or not they are considering the needs and desires of others
2. Nonnormative career events
Far more likely to become crises than normative transitions
Most common – loss of a job (being fired or laid off), can be devastating unless
the work role is not a salient one
Other examples – promotion, transfer, or demotion to another job
3. Persistent occupational problems
career problems that persist for a long period of time, causing a cumulative effect that can lead to a transition crisis
examples – unpleasant work environment, pressures on the job, relations with colleagues and superiors
MODELS OF TRANSITIONS AND CRISES
Reaction to crises takes place over a period of time
Two basic phases of transitions.
_ Dealing with and decreasing stress
_ Attending towards details of the crisis so that one can return to normal life
Individuals respond to job loss with depression, anxiety and reduced self-esteem
Positive change and growth can occur with involuntary work changes.
Outplacement counselors can help with these severe reactions (e.g. shock and negative emotional impact)
_ Help people access their current situations, abilities, values, and interests
_ Help clients set career goals and develop strategies for job search
_ Teach resume writing, interviewing, and locating job or educational opportunities.
HOPSON AND ADAM’S MODEL OF ADULT TRANSITIONS
Immobilization
Example: initial shock when you find out you’ve been fired
Overwhelmed, unable to make plans, possibly unable to verbally respond
Few moments to few monthshow long it lasts depends on situation and psychological makeup of person
Minimization
Desire to make the change appear smaller than it is
Often, person will deny that change is even taking place or will tell herself that event doesn’t matter
Self-Doubt
Doubting oneself and one’s ability to provide for oneself and for one’s dependents
Common reactions are anxiety due to not knowing what will happen, fear of the future, sadness, and anger
Letting Go
Individual lets go of angry, tense, frustrated, or other feelings
Accepts what is really happening to her
Detaches herself from original situation and starts to look at future
Testing Out
May develop a burst of energy, a sense of “now I can do it”
Sometimes people will describe the way things should be, may have advice for others in the same situation
May have ideas of how they will move forward
Search for Meaning
Seeks to understand how events are different and why
Cognitive process in which people try to understand not only the feelings of others, but also their own
Internalization
Change in both values and lifestyle
May have developed new coping skills and has grown emotionally, spiritually, or cognitively as a result of going through difficult crisis
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Counselor’s experience with her own crises and transitions
Problems when the counselor is in crisis
Crisis – more negative term, a situation in which a person has to develop new methods of dealing with a problem that has arisen rather suddenly and may be disorienting
TYPES OF TRANSITIONS
Schlossberg’s 4 types of transitions:
_ Anticipated -happens in the lifespan of most people
e.g. graduation, marriage, starting a job, retirement
_ Unanticipated - unexpected events, such as death of a family member, being fired or transferred
_ “Chronic hassles” - situations such as a long commute to work, an unreasonable supervisor
_ Nonevents (events that don’t happen) - an event that someone wishes to happen, but never occurs e.g. a promotion that never happens; for women: not being able to leave or enter the workforce easily
Hopson and Adams class of transitions:
voluntary - e.g. quitting one job to do another
involuntary - e.g. being fired or laid off
CATEGORIES OF CAREER TRANSITIONS
Career events are classified into three areas (Schlossberg):
1. Normative role transitions
Anticipated and voluntary (e.g. starting your first full-time job)
Occurs in Super’s exploration stage
Become crises when not anticipated
Louis’s 5 categories of normative transitions that people experience in work roles similar to Marvis and Hall’s “boundaryless” careers:
• Entering or reentering a labor pool
• Taking on a different role in an organization
• Moving from one organization to another
• Changing professions
• Leaving the labor pool
Career Transitions Inventory – to assess how well people believe they have made career transitions; 5 subscales:
• Readiness – how motivated you are to make a career transition
• Confidence – one’s sense of self-efficacy in being able to make a successful transition
• Control – degree to which people feel they can make their own decisions
• Perceived Support – how much support people feel they get from their friends and family
• Decision Independence – the extent to which people make decisions based primarily on their own needs or whether or not they are considering the needs and desires of others
2. Nonnormative career events
Far more likely to become crises than normative transitions
Most common – loss of a job (being fired or laid off), can be devastating unless
the work role is not a salient one
Other examples – promotion, transfer, or demotion to another job
3. Persistent occupational problems
career problems that persist for a long period of time, causing a cumulative effect that can lead to a transition crisis
examples – unpleasant work environment, pressures on the job, relations with colleagues and superiors
MODELS OF TRANSITIONS AND CRISES
Reaction to crises takes place over a period of time
Two basic phases of transitions.
_ Dealing with and decreasing stress
_ Attending towards details of the crisis so that one can return to normal life
Individuals respond to job loss with depression, anxiety and reduced self-esteem
Positive change and growth can occur with involuntary work changes.
Outplacement counselors can help with these severe reactions (e.g. shock and negative emotional impact)
_ Help people access their current situations, abilities, values, and interests
_ Help clients set career goals and develop strategies for job search
_ Teach resume writing, interviewing, and locating job or educational opportunities.
HOPSON AND ADAM’S MODEL OF ADULT TRANSITIONS
Immobilization
Example: initial shock when you find out you’ve been fired
Overwhelmed, unable to make plans, possibly unable to verbally respond
Few moments to few monthshow long it lasts depends on situation and psychological makeup of person
Minimization
Desire to make the change appear smaller than it is
Often, person will deny that change is even taking place or will tell herself that event doesn’t matter
Self-Doubt
Doubting oneself and one’s ability to provide for oneself and for one’s dependents
Common reactions are anxiety due to not knowing what will happen, fear of the future, sadness, and anger
Letting Go
Individual lets go of angry, tense, frustrated, or other feelings
Accepts what is really happening to her
Detaches herself from original situation and starts to look at future
Testing Out
May develop a burst of energy, a sense of “now I can do it”
Sometimes people will describe the way things should be, may have advice for others in the same situation
May have ideas of how they will move forward
Search for Meaning
Seeks to understand how events are different and why
Cognitive process in which people try to understand not only the feelings of others, but also their own
Internalization
Change in both values and lifestyle
May have developed new coping skills and has grown emotionally, spiritually, or cognitively as a result of going through difficult crisis
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Counselor’s experience with her own crises and transitions
Problems when the counselor is in crisis
LATE ADOLESCENT AND ADULT CAREER DEVELOPMENT
Super’s two major concepts – life role and life stage (values are also important)
ROLE SALIENCE
People have differences in terms of the importance of work to them
Importance of work can also vary depending on their state in life
Salience Inventory – measures 3 aspects of life roles: commitment, participation, and value expectations
Super’s rainbow illustrates life roles
Life roles measured by Salience Inventory listed below:
Life Roles
Studying
Includes a number of activities: during school years – courses, school, studying at library or home
Many people continue their education at some point in their life for pleasure or to enhance their job advancement or success
Working
May start in childhood (e.g. babysitting, mowing lawn, etc.)
Adolescents usually get part-time work
Adults work at one or more jobs at various times in their lives
At retirement, jobs for pay or profit may be for fewer hours than when individuals were younger
Community Service
Includes broad range of voluntary service groups (e.g. social, political, or religious)
Home and Family
Varies greatly depending on age of individual
As adults enter later years, their responsibility for home and family may increase or decrease markedly
Leisure Activities
Nature and importance of leisure varies considerably throughout life
Particularly important for children and adolescents
Lifetime sports – sports that are less physically demanding and require fewer participants, so they are easier for adults to participate in at various times in their lives
For adults, leisure activities become more sophisticated and intellectual (i.e. theatre, books, stocks and bonds, etc.)
Liptak’s Leisure Theory of Career Development: leisure is a substitute for work as a way of trying out new activities, importance of play throughout the lifespan, shows significance of leisure in a variety of life stages, leisure plays a more important role in career development than work (especially in beginning and end of lifespan)
• Early childhood – parents are important influence in development of play and curiosity
• 6 to 12 – school and after-school activities allow for cognitive and motor skill development through play or leisure activity
• Adolescence – team and individual activities (i.e. sports, clubs, and hobbies) helps refine interests and abilities
• 19 to 25 – leisure related to work or education
• Adulthood – leisure related to work or family related activities,
Indicators of the Salience of Life Roles
Nature of involvement changes throughout a person’s life
Involvement is measured in terms of:
• Participation - measures actual behavior of a person
• Commitment - future plans, a desire to be active
• Knowledge - information about a role from experiencing the role or by observing it
• Value Expectations - opportunity for various roles to meet a variety of needs; values measured by
Value Expectation Scale of the Salience Inventory; includes 14 value expectations*:
Ability utilization – using one’s skills and knowledge
Achievement – feeling that one has produced good results
Aesthetics – finding beauty in the role one chooses
Altruism – helping others with problems
Autonomy – independent and working on your own
Creativity – discovering or designing new things
Economic Rewards – to have a have a high standard of living and material things
Lifestyle – plan one’s own activities and live the way you want to
Physical activity – being physically active
Prestige – opportunity for individuals to be acknowledged for what they accomplish
Risk – dangerous or exciting challenges
Social Interaction – being with other people and working in a group
Variety – being able to change work activities
Working Conditions
*The Values Scale also includes authority, personal development, social relations, cultural identity, physical prowess, economic security
ADULT LIFE STAGES
Both age-related (there are typical times when people go through the stages) and NOT age-related (also possible to experience each stage at almost any time during their lifetime)
One can be involved in several stages at once
MAXICYCLE – five major life stages
MINICYCLE – describes the growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and disengagement that can occur within any of the stages in the maxicycle
Basic Stages of Career Development
Exploration – 15 to 25 years old, the efforts that individuals make to get a better idea of occupational information, choose career alternatives, decide on occupations, and start to work.
Crystallizing – clarify what they want to do, learn about entry-level jobs, typically high school students, narrow choices
Specifying - college graduates, early 20’s, high school students who go straight to work, must choose their first full-time job, specify their preferences so they may find an employer
Implementing - last phase prior to working, making plans to fulfill their career objectives, start to network, talking to university counselor
Establishment - 25 to 45, getting established in one’s work by starting in a job that is likely to mean the start of working life, work in an occupation that will probably be steady for many years, for semi- and unskilled workers, it refers to the person who works for much of his or her lifetime.
Stabilizing - settling down in a job and being able to meet those job requirements that will ensure that a person can stay in the field in which he started, apprehensive about whether he has the skills necessary to stay with the work
Consolidating - starts to become more comfortable with work and wants to be a dependable producer, competent, and reliable
Advancing - occurs any time in the establishing stage, moving ahead into a position of more responsibility with higher pay
Maintenance - 45 to 65, not advancing, but maintaining their status in work. Find out how their work will change in the future
Holding - some level of success has been attained, concerned with holding onto the position that they have
Updating - updating workers on changes in their field, learning new things
Innovating - making progress in one’s profession, develop new skills
Disengagement - continue to use their mental capacities for growth and at the same time disengage from various activities (e.g. work)
Deceleration - slowing down one’s work responsibility (i.e. finding easier ways to do work or spending less time at work)
Retirement Planning - financial planning and planning activities to do when retired, individuals return to crystallization stage
Retirement Living - late 60’s, leisure, home and family, and community service becomes more important than work
Recycling - Not everyone follows stages in a neat orderly outline, may reenter any stage at any time
SUPER’S LIFE STAGES OF WOMEN
Seven career patterns for women:
_ Stable homemaking career pattern - get married soon after school and do not work
_ Conventional career pattern - enter work after high school or college, but after marrying, they are full-time homemakers
_ Stable career working pattern - after school, work continuously
_ Double-track career pattern - combine work and homemaking
_ Interrupted career pattern - enter work, then marry and full-time homemaking, then go back to work after children are older
_ Unstable career pattern - drop out of workforce, return, drop out, return.
_ Multiple-trial career pattern - works, but never really establishes career, has a number of unrelated jobs in her career
Others suggest ways to manage careers, such as making decisions decision with partner
Bardwick - Bardwick described typical experiences of women at various points in their adult life
_ Many women between 30 to 40 who have been involved in a career are concerned with not wanting to delay having children any longer
Many women are concerned with balancing their professional role and their feminine role
_ Between 40 to 50, women start to develop more autonomy and to become more independent. Women got back to work after children have gotten older, not a time of maintenance, but of career accomplishments
_ Bardwick is contrasted with Super by her notion that marriage and family are important to women’s career decision making and planning
_ Ecological perspective focuses on relationship between women and their environment
LIFE STAGES OF CULTURALLY DIVERSE ADULTS
Minority Identity Development (Atkinson, et al.)
_ Conformity - prefer majority culture
_ Dissonance - through information and experience, encounter conflict and confusion between values of own culture and majority’s
_ Resistance and immersion - rejects dominant culture and embraces minority culture
_ Introspection - begins to question total acceptance of minority culture
_ Synergetic articulation and awareness - incorporates cultural values of both the dominant group and other minorities
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Be aware of life stages of counselor in contrast with the client.
ROLE SALIENCE
People have differences in terms of the importance of work to them
Importance of work can also vary depending on their state in life
Salience Inventory – measures 3 aspects of life roles: commitment, participation, and value expectations
Super’s rainbow illustrates life roles
Life roles measured by Salience Inventory listed below:
Life Roles
Studying
Includes a number of activities: during school years – courses, school, studying at library or home
Many people continue their education at some point in their life for pleasure or to enhance their job advancement or success
Working
May start in childhood (e.g. babysitting, mowing lawn, etc.)
Adolescents usually get part-time work
Adults work at one or more jobs at various times in their lives
At retirement, jobs for pay or profit may be for fewer hours than when individuals were younger
Community Service
Includes broad range of voluntary service groups (e.g. social, political, or religious)
Home and Family
Varies greatly depending on age of individual
As adults enter later years, their responsibility for home and family may increase or decrease markedly
Leisure Activities
Nature and importance of leisure varies considerably throughout life
Particularly important for children and adolescents
Lifetime sports – sports that are less physically demanding and require fewer participants, so they are easier for adults to participate in at various times in their lives
For adults, leisure activities become more sophisticated and intellectual (i.e. theatre, books, stocks and bonds, etc.)
Liptak’s Leisure Theory of Career Development: leisure is a substitute for work as a way of trying out new activities, importance of play throughout the lifespan, shows significance of leisure in a variety of life stages, leisure plays a more important role in career development than work (especially in beginning and end of lifespan)
• Early childhood – parents are important influence in development of play and curiosity
• 6 to 12 – school and after-school activities allow for cognitive and motor skill development through play or leisure activity
• Adolescence – team and individual activities (i.e. sports, clubs, and hobbies) helps refine interests and abilities
• 19 to 25 – leisure related to work or education
• Adulthood – leisure related to work or family related activities,
Indicators of the Salience of Life Roles
Nature of involvement changes throughout a person’s life
Involvement is measured in terms of:
• Participation - measures actual behavior of a person
• Commitment - future plans, a desire to be active
• Knowledge - information about a role from experiencing the role or by observing it
• Value Expectations - opportunity for various roles to meet a variety of needs; values measured by
Value Expectation Scale of the Salience Inventory; includes 14 value expectations*:
Ability utilization – using one’s skills and knowledge
Achievement – feeling that one has produced good results
Aesthetics – finding beauty in the role one chooses
Altruism – helping others with problems
Autonomy – independent and working on your own
Creativity – discovering or designing new things
Economic Rewards – to have a have a high standard of living and material things
Lifestyle – plan one’s own activities and live the way you want to
Physical activity – being physically active
Prestige – opportunity for individuals to be acknowledged for what they accomplish
Risk – dangerous or exciting challenges
Social Interaction – being with other people and working in a group
Variety – being able to change work activities
Working Conditions
*The Values Scale also includes authority, personal development, social relations, cultural identity, physical prowess, economic security
ADULT LIFE STAGES
Both age-related (there are typical times when people go through the stages) and NOT age-related (also possible to experience each stage at almost any time during their lifetime)
One can be involved in several stages at once
MAXICYCLE – five major life stages
MINICYCLE – describes the growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and disengagement that can occur within any of the stages in the maxicycle
Basic Stages of Career Development
Exploration – 15 to 25 years old, the efforts that individuals make to get a better idea of occupational information, choose career alternatives, decide on occupations, and start to work.
Crystallizing – clarify what they want to do, learn about entry-level jobs, typically high school students, narrow choices
Specifying - college graduates, early 20’s, high school students who go straight to work, must choose their first full-time job, specify their preferences so they may find an employer
Implementing - last phase prior to working, making plans to fulfill their career objectives, start to network, talking to university counselor
Establishment - 25 to 45, getting established in one’s work by starting in a job that is likely to mean the start of working life, work in an occupation that will probably be steady for many years, for semi- and unskilled workers, it refers to the person who works for much of his or her lifetime.
Stabilizing - settling down in a job and being able to meet those job requirements that will ensure that a person can stay in the field in which he started, apprehensive about whether he has the skills necessary to stay with the work
Consolidating - starts to become more comfortable with work and wants to be a dependable producer, competent, and reliable
Advancing - occurs any time in the establishing stage, moving ahead into a position of more responsibility with higher pay
Maintenance - 45 to 65, not advancing, but maintaining their status in work. Find out how their work will change in the future
Holding - some level of success has been attained, concerned with holding onto the position that they have
Updating - updating workers on changes in their field, learning new things
Innovating - making progress in one’s profession, develop new skills
Disengagement - continue to use their mental capacities for growth and at the same time disengage from various activities (e.g. work)
Deceleration - slowing down one’s work responsibility (i.e. finding easier ways to do work or spending less time at work)
Retirement Planning - financial planning and planning activities to do when retired, individuals return to crystallization stage
Retirement Living - late 60’s, leisure, home and family, and community service becomes more important than work
Recycling - Not everyone follows stages in a neat orderly outline, may reenter any stage at any time
SUPER’S LIFE STAGES OF WOMEN
Seven career patterns for women:
_ Stable homemaking career pattern - get married soon after school and do not work
_ Conventional career pattern - enter work after high school or college, but after marrying, they are full-time homemakers
_ Stable career working pattern - after school, work continuously
_ Double-track career pattern - combine work and homemaking
_ Interrupted career pattern - enter work, then marry and full-time homemaking, then go back to work after children are older
_ Unstable career pattern - drop out of workforce, return, drop out, return.
_ Multiple-trial career pattern - works, but never really establishes career, has a number of unrelated jobs in her career
Others suggest ways to manage careers, such as making decisions decision with partner
Bardwick - Bardwick described typical experiences of women at various points in their adult life
_ Many women between 30 to 40 who have been involved in a career are concerned with not wanting to delay having children any longer
Many women are concerned with balancing their professional role and their feminine role
_ Between 40 to 50, women start to develop more autonomy and to become more independent. Women got back to work after children have gotten older, not a time of maintenance, but of career accomplishments
_ Bardwick is contrasted with Super by her notion that marriage and family are important to women’s career decision making and planning
_ Ecological perspective focuses on relationship between women and their environment
LIFE STAGES OF CULTURALLY DIVERSE ADULTS
Minority Identity Development (Atkinson, et al.)
_ Conformity - prefer majority culture
_ Dissonance - through information and experience, encounter conflict and confusion between values of own culture and majority’s
_ Resistance and immersion - rejects dominant culture and embraces minority culture
_ Introspection - begins to question total acceptance of minority culture
_ Synergetic articulation and awareness - incorporates cultural values of both the dominant group and other minorities
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Be aware of life stages of counselor in contrast with the client.
Thursday, October 2, 2008
Adolescent Career Development
Educational commitments to career choices are made during adolescence.
This chapter describes how cognitive and emotional factors bear on career decisions of adolescents.
FACTORS INFLUENCING ADOLESCENT CAREER DEVELOPMENT
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
Formal thought, the ability to think abstractly, ability to use logic (apt to be quite idealistic, expecting their world to be logical, when it isn’t). May be cause for conflict because adolescents start to believe that they are right and others are wrong.
Erikson says that adolescence is a time of identity and role confusion, which leads them to question the world.
GINZBERG’S TENTATIVE STAGE OF ADOLESCENT CAREER DEVELOPMENT
Three periods in the choice process
Fantasy stage (up to age 11): play and imagination in thinking about future work
Tentative stage: recognition of one’s interests, abilities, and values, as well as one’s knowledge of work
_ Development of interests
_ Development of capacities
_ Development of values
_ Transition period
Realistic stage (after age 17): specifying and crystallizing occupational choice
Development of Interests:
At about 11, children stop fantasizing and begin to make choices based on interests
Young boys’ choices were related to their fathers’ careers
Ability to judge competencies is limited and unimportant to them
Interests are the major factor in the selection and rejection of career choices during childhood
Development of Capacities:
Ages 13 – 14 (middle school)
More likely to asess their own abilities
Educational process becomes more important in preparation for work
More realistic view of themselves and their future
Development of Values:
Ages 15 – 16
Able to take their goals and values into consideration when making career decisions
May not know how to weigh their interests, capacities, and values, but they have the necessary building blocks for choice
Becoming aware that they have to make choices to fit into the complex world
They may consider making contributions to society and the world
Issues of marriage and life plans may emerge
Transition Period:
Ages 17 – 18 (last year of high school)
Decisions about college and majors
Aware of job availability
Career guidance usually includes an asessment of interests, capacities, and values
Comparison of Super and Ginzberg’s Stages
In general, the adolescent life stages of both theorists are very similar
Super does not include values in his overview because they are developed in several stages. Except for values, both theories place interests before capacities
Differences:
Super emphasizes recycling of stages, so time guidelines are not as important
Super believes that adolescents’ attitudes toward career and their knowledge of careers is important
Super thinks that adolescents enter stages about two years earlier than Ginzberg believes
CAREER MATURITY
Five major components (Super)
1. Orientation to vocational choice, using occupational information
2. Information and planning about an occupation
3. Consistency of vocational preference
4. Crystallization of traits
5. The wisdom of vocational preference
Super’s Conception of Career Maturity
Career Development Inventory, five Subscales:
Career Planning
This scale measures how much thought people have given to a variety of information-seeking activities and how much they feel they know about various aspects of work
Amount of planning is critical
Career planning – how much a student feels that he knows about these activities, not how much he actually knows
Career Exploration
Willingness to explore and look for information
How much information the student has acquired from the source
Decision Making
The ability to use knowledge and thought in career plans
World-of-Work Information
Knowledge of important developmental tasks
Knowledge of job duties in a few selected occupations, as well as job application behaviors
Knowledge of the Preferred Occupational Group - Choose from 20 groups
Realism (not tested)
Mixed affective and cognitive entity best assessed by combining personal, self-report, and objective data as in comparing the aptitudes of the individual with the aptitudes typical of the people in the occupation.
Is the career choice realistic?
Career Orientation Total
General term encompassing the previous concepts
Score gives a summary of the first 4 scales (excludes knowledge of preferred occupational group and realism)
IDENTITY AND CONTEXT
Based on Erikson’s work on identity and developed by Marcia and Vondracek
Vocational Identity, 4 developmental stages:
_ Diffusion – having few clear ideas of what one wants and not being concerned about the future
_ Moratorium – a time, often more than several months, in which one explores options while wanting a direction, but not having one
_ Foreclosure – making a choice, often based on family tradition, without exploring other options
_ Achievement – knowing what one wants and making plans to attain an occupational goal
Vondracek combines identity with attention to the context of the development
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Psychtalk - statements used to describe aptitudes, interests, and other characteristics of one’s self
Occtalk - statements about occupations
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT
CAREER DEVELOPMENT OF ADOLESCENTS FORM DIVERSE CULTURAL BACKGROUNDS
Applicability of career maturity studied for adolescents of different cultural backgrounds
Vocational aspirations differs for Latino, Latinas, Mexican Americans, and African Americans
GENDER ISSUES IN ADOLESCENCE
Females more interested in traditionally male careers than males were in female careers
Traditional pattern of females choosing clerical jobs, males choosing craft and labor positions
Females: lower and higher level prestige, males: mid-level prestige
Females tend to score higher than males on Career Development Inventory
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Dealing with adolescents’ egocentricity
Patience with adolescent search for identity
Adolescents may have a limited time perspective
This chapter describes how cognitive and emotional factors bear on career decisions of adolescents.
FACTORS INFLUENCING ADOLESCENT CAREER DEVELOPMENT
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
Formal thought, the ability to think abstractly, ability to use logic (apt to be quite idealistic, expecting their world to be logical, when it isn’t). May be cause for conflict because adolescents start to believe that they are right and others are wrong.
Erikson says that adolescence is a time of identity and role confusion, which leads them to question the world.
GINZBERG’S TENTATIVE STAGE OF ADOLESCENT CAREER DEVELOPMENT
Three periods in the choice process
Fantasy stage (up to age 11): play and imagination in thinking about future work
Tentative stage: recognition of one’s interests, abilities, and values, as well as one’s knowledge of work
_ Development of interests
_ Development of capacities
_ Development of values
_ Transition period
Realistic stage (after age 17): specifying and crystallizing occupational choice
Development of Interests:
At about 11, children stop fantasizing and begin to make choices based on interests
Young boys’ choices were related to their fathers’ careers
Ability to judge competencies is limited and unimportant to them
Interests are the major factor in the selection and rejection of career choices during childhood
Development of Capacities:
Ages 13 – 14 (middle school)
More likely to asess their own abilities
Educational process becomes more important in preparation for work
More realistic view of themselves and their future
Development of Values:
Ages 15 – 16
Able to take their goals and values into consideration when making career decisions
May not know how to weigh their interests, capacities, and values, but they have the necessary building blocks for choice
Becoming aware that they have to make choices to fit into the complex world
They may consider making contributions to society and the world
Issues of marriage and life plans may emerge
Transition Period:
Ages 17 – 18 (last year of high school)
Decisions about college and majors
Aware of job availability
Career guidance usually includes an asessment of interests, capacities, and values
Comparison of Super and Ginzberg’s Stages
In general, the adolescent life stages of both theorists are very similar
Super does not include values in his overview because they are developed in several stages. Except for values, both theories place interests before capacities
Differences:
Super emphasizes recycling of stages, so time guidelines are not as important
Super believes that adolescents’ attitudes toward career and their knowledge of careers is important
Super thinks that adolescents enter stages about two years earlier than Ginzberg believes
CAREER MATURITY
Five major components (Super)
1. Orientation to vocational choice, using occupational information
2. Information and planning about an occupation
3. Consistency of vocational preference
4. Crystallization of traits
5. The wisdom of vocational preference
Super’s Conception of Career Maturity
Career Development Inventory, five Subscales:
Career Planning
This scale measures how much thought people have given to a variety of information-seeking activities and how much they feel they know about various aspects of work
Amount of planning is critical
Career planning – how much a student feels that he knows about these activities, not how much he actually knows
Career Exploration
Willingness to explore and look for information
How much information the student has acquired from the source
Decision Making
The ability to use knowledge and thought in career plans
World-of-Work Information
Knowledge of important developmental tasks
Knowledge of job duties in a few selected occupations, as well as job application behaviors
Knowledge of the Preferred Occupational Group - Choose from 20 groups
Realism (not tested)
Mixed affective and cognitive entity best assessed by combining personal, self-report, and objective data as in comparing the aptitudes of the individual with the aptitudes typical of the people in the occupation.
Is the career choice realistic?
Career Orientation Total
General term encompassing the previous concepts
Score gives a summary of the first 4 scales (excludes knowledge of preferred occupational group and realism)
IDENTITY AND CONTEXT
Based on Erikson’s work on identity and developed by Marcia and Vondracek
Vocational Identity, 4 developmental stages:
_ Diffusion – having few clear ideas of what one wants and not being concerned about the future
_ Moratorium – a time, often more than several months, in which one explores options while wanting a direction, but not having one
_ Foreclosure – making a choice, often based on family tradition, without exploring other options
_ Achievement – knowing what one wants and making plans to attain an occupational goal
Vondracek combines identity with attention to the context of the development
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Psychtalk - statements used to describe aptitudes, interests, and other characteristics of one’s self
Occtalk - statements about occupations
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT
CAREER DEVELOPMENT OF ADOLESCENTS FORM DIVERSE CULTURAL BACKGROUNDS
Applicability of career maturity studied for adolescents of different cultural backgrounds
Vocational aspirations differs for Latino, Latinas, Mexican Americans, and African Americans
GENDER ISSUES IN ADOLESCENCE
Females more interested in traditionally male careers than males were in female careers
Traditional pattern of females choosing clerical jobs, males choosing craft and labor positions
Females: lower and higher level prestige, males: mid-level prestige
Females tend to score higher than males on Career Development Inventory
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Dealing with adolescents’ egocentricity
Patience with adolescent search for identity
Adolescents may have a limited time perspective
Career Development in Childhood
Career-related issues that affect child until age of 12
SUPER’S MODEL OF THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN
Curiosity:
Desire for knowledge or something new or unusual
Most basic of all needs and drives
Curiosity may develop when there are changes in an individual’s physical or social needs
May be prompted by hunger, thirst, loneliness, and other stimuli
Boredom, wish for excitement, or a desire for stimulation produces curiosity
Curiosity and fantasizing in young children should be encouraged
Exploration:
Act of searching or examining
Is a behavior
Curiosity leads to children exploring their environment
Information:
Piaget: major periods of cognitive development
_ Sensorimotor (birth – 2): infants attend to objects and events around them and then respond to these objects and events
Attending – sensory acts of touching, seeing, smelling, etc.
Responding – motor acts such as biting, hitting, screaming, etc.
_ Preoperational (2 – 7): learn to add and subtract, egocentric, young children cannot tell fantasy from reality
_ Concrete operational (7 – 11): Children think in concrete terms, they do not have to see an object to imagine manipulating it, but they must be aware that it exists
_ Formal operational (12 – beyond): think abstractly
Key Figures:
Adults are important role models
Parents, teachers, public figures are examples
Significant method of learning for children is imitation
Internal versus External Control:
Children begin to experience a feeling of control over their own surroundings
they begin to develop a feeling of autonomy and of being in control of future events
Development of Interests:
Fantasies of occupations are affected by information about the world, and they become interests.
Encouraging children’s emerging interests is helpful in the development of their career maturity.
Time Perspective:
Developing a sense of future
Unrealistic to ask children (especially below 4th grade) to think about planning future vocational training
Self-concept and Planfulness:
Sense of self begins to emerge in late childhood or early adolescence
USING SUPER’S MODEL IN COUNSELING CHILDREN
Typical elementary school guidance problems
_ Lack of academic progress
_ Dyslexia
_ Lack of reading achievement
_ Problems with sight, hearing, or ability
Typical family problems
_ Child abuse
_ Child neglect
_ Issues arising from single parent families
_ Divorce
_ Unwed parents
_ Stepfamilies
_ Working parents
GOTTFREDSON’S THEORY OF CIRCUMSCRIPTION, COMPROMISE, AND SELF-CREATION
A life-stage theory of career development in childhood and adolescence that emphasizes the importance of gender and prestige in making decisions (this gender and prestige emphasis is generally not in any other theories).
Socialization theory - biological factors become less and less important as individuals age.
Modern nature-nurture partnership theory - both biological and environmental factors influence each other and continue to do so throughout the life of the individual.
Niches - life settings and roles that individuals occupy.
Similar to other theorists, Gottfredson’s theory includes intelligence, vocational interest, competencies, and values.
Circumscription - The idea that various factors limit career choices at different ages.
The progressive elimination of unacceptable alternatives, leaving acceptable alternatives
The prediction that gender will influence occupational preferences from the age of 6 and up and prestige will influence preferences at 9 and up
Choices are circumscribed or limited
Four stages of cognitive development (provides a way for one to look at themselves in the world)
1. 3 – 5 years old: orientation to size and power
Children grasp the idea of becoming an adult by orienting themselves to the size difference between themselves and adults
2. 6 – 8 years old: orientation to gender roles
Become aware of the different gender roles of men and women
Their careers choices are influenced by their view of gender roles
3. 9 – 13 years old: affected by abstract ideas of social class
Prestige becomes an important factor in career choice
4. 14 years old and older: orientation to the Internal Unique Self;
Adolescents become more introspective and develop greater self-awareness and perceptiveness toward others
Develop a more insightful view of vocational aspirations as they are affected by the view of themselves, gender roles, and prestige
Gender-stereotyping
Children develop tolerable gender-type boundaries, beliefs that tell them that certain jobs are appropriate for a specific sex
Persuasive gender-stereotyping is found in schools
Compromise: the necessity of an individual to modify his or her career choices because of the reality of limiting environmental factors such as a competitive job market or not having sufficient academic performance to enter an academic program
May have to accept less attractive careers
Concerns the prediction that the earlier a stage occurs, the more resistant it will be to change and the less willing an individual will be to compromise on issues related to that stage
Gender type, prestige, and interest will be compromised (or sacrificed) in such a way that, when making a change in career choice, individuals will give up their interests first, then prestige, and then gender type.
This hypothesis deals with why women have a hard time considering non-traditional careers.
Implications of Gottfredson’s Theory for Super’s Theory
Super’s model does NOT deal with gender bias.
Gottfredson is consistent with the importance of career exploration unrestricted by gender-role stereotyping.
Thus, children should be able to EXPLORE.
Schools should provide non-gender –stereotyping material so that children can gather INFORMATION.
Schools are more likely then to provide an atmosphere that promotes a variety of INTERESTS.
If exploration and information are not gender-biased, the selection of KEY FIGURES is also more likely to be unbiased.
These concepts will eventually affect the child’s SELF-CONCEPT and ability to make career choices.
CAREER DEVELOPMENT FOR CHILDREN OF CULTURALLY DIVERSE BACKGROUNDS
Research suggests that African American and Hispanic children may be impeded in their exposure to exploratory activities in finding information that would enhance their development.
Counselors should provide the same opportunities for all children.
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
School-to-Work – provision of occupational information through the educational system.
1. Infusion of occupational information into the classroom through films, oral reports on occupations, or development of interest centers in class
2. Less formal approach includes group activities such as skits using terms from the world of work, crossword puzzles with work terms, comparing lists of interests, abilities, and achievements with requirements of occupations
3. Community involvement, field trips
Experiential Career Guidance Model
Activities designed for preschool children
Sensitive to children’s limited time perspective
Activities focus on the family and home, such as a play store or library
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
A few inventories for children, such as Holland’s Self-Directed Search (Form E), Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), Children’s Personality Questionnaire
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Great gap between the developmental stage of children and that of counselors.
SUPER’S MODEL OF THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN
Curiosity:
Desire for knowledge or something new or unusual
Most basic of all needs and drives
Curiosity may develop when there are changes in an individual’s physical or social needs
May be prompted by hunger, thirst, loneliness, and other stimuli
Boredom, wish for excitement, or a desire for stimulation produces curiosity
Curiosity and fantasizing in young children should be encouraged
Exploration:
Act of searching or examining
Is a behavior
Curiosity leads to children exploring their environment
Information:
Piaget: major periods of cognitive development
_ Sensorimotor (birth – 2): infants attend to objects and events around them and then respond to these objects and events
Attending – sensory acts of touching, seeing, smelling, etc.
Responding – motor acts such as biting, hitting, screaming, etc.
_ Preoperational (2 – 7): learn to add and subtract, egocentric, young children cannot tell fantasy from reality
_ Concrete operational (7 – 11): Children think in concrete terms, they do not have to see an object to imagine manipulating it, but they must be aware that it exists
_ Formal operational (12 – beyond): think abstractly
Key Figures:
Adults are important role models
Parents, teachers, public figures are examples
Significant method of learning for children is imitation
Internal versus External Control:
Children begin to experience a feeling of control over their own surroundings
they begin to develop a feeling of autonomy and of being in control of future events
Development of Interests:
Fantasies of occupations are affected by information about the world, and they become interests.
Encouraging children’s emerging interests is helpful in the development of their career maturity.
Time Perspective:
Developing a sense of future
Unrealistic to ask children (especially below 4th grade) to think about planning future vocational training
Self-concept and Planfulness:
Sense of self begins to emerge in late childhood or early adolescence
USING SUPER’S MODEL IN COUNSELING CHILDREN
Typical elementary school guidance problems
_ Lack of academic progress
_ Dyslexia
_ Lack of reading achievement
_ Problems with sight, hearing, or ability
Typical family problems
_ Child abuse
_ Child neglect
_ Issues arising from single parent families
_ Divorce
_ Unwed parents
_ Stepfamilies
_ Working parents
GOTTFREDSON’S THEORY OF CIRCUMSCRIPTION, COMPROMISE, AND SELF-CREATION
A life-stage theory of career development in childhood and adolescence that emphasizes the importance of gender and prestige in making decisions (this gender and prestige emphasis is generally not in any other theories).
Socialization theory - biological factors become less and less important as individuals age.
Modern nature-nurture partnership theory - both biological and environmental factors influence each other and continue to do so throughout the life of the individual.
Niches - life settings and roles that individuals occupy.
Similar to other theorists, Gottfredson’s theory includes intelligence, vocational interest, competencies, and values.
Circumscription - The idea that various factors limit career choices at different ages.
The progressive elimination of unacceptable alternatives, leaving acceptable alternatives
The prediction that gender will influence occupational preferences from the age of 6 and up and prestige will influence preferences at 9 and up
Choices are circumscribed or limited
Four stages of cognitive development (provides a way for one to look at themselves in the world)
1. 3 – 5 years old: orientation to size and power
Children grasp the idea of becoming an adult by orienting themselves to the size difference between themselves and adults
2. 6 – 8 years old: orientation to gender roles
Become aware of the different gender roles of men and women
Their careers choices are influenced by their view of gender roles
3. 9 – 13 years old: affected by abstract ideas of social class
Prestige becomes an important factor in career choice
4. 14 years old and older: orientation to the Internal Unique Self;
Adolescents become more introspective and develop greater self-awareness and perceptiveness toward others
Develop a more insightful view of vocational aspirations as they are affected by the view of themselves, gender roles, and prestige
Gender-stereotyping
Children develop tolerable gender-type boundaries, beliefs that tell them that certain jobs are appropriate for a specific sex
Persuasive gender-stereotyping is found in schools
Compromise: the necessity of an individual to modify his or her career choices because of the reality of limiting environmental factors such as a competitive job market or not having sufficient academic performance to enter an academic program
May have to accept less attractive careers
Concerns the prediction that the earlier a stage occurs, the more resistant it will be to change and the less willing an individual will be to compromise on issues related to that stage
Gender type, prestige, and interest will be compromised (or sacrificed) in such a way that, when making a change in career choice, individuals will give up their interests first, then prestige, and then gender type.
This hypothesis deals with why women have a hard time considering non-traditional careers.
Implications of Gottfredson’s Theory for Super’s Theory
Super’s model does NOT deal with gender bias.
Gottfredson is consistent with the importance of career exploration unrestricted by gender-role stereotyping.
Thus, children should be able to EXPLORE.
Schools should provide non-gender –stereotyping material so that children can gather INFORMATION.
Schools are more likely then to provide an atmosphere that promotes a variety of INTERESTS.
If exploration and information are not gender-biased, the selection of KEY FIGURES is also more likely to be unbiased.
These concepts will eventually affect the child’s SELF-CONCEPT and ability to make career choices.
CAREER DEVELOPMENT FOR CHILDREN OF CULTURALLY DIVERSE BACKGROUNDS
Research suggests that African American and Hispanic children may be impeded in their exposure to exploratory activities in finding information that would enhance their development.
Counselors should provide the same opportunities for all children.
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
School-to-Work – provision of occupational information through the educational system.
1. Infusion of occupational information into the classroom through films, oral reports on occupations, or development of interest centers in class
2. Less formal approach includes group activities such as skits using terms from the world of work, crossword puzzles with work terms, comparing lists of interests, abilities, and achievements with requirements of occupations
3. Community involvement, field trips
Experiential Career Guidance Model
Activities designed for preschool children
Sensitive to children’s limited time perspective
Activities focus on the family and home, such as a play store or library
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
A few inventories for children, such as Holland’s Self-Directed Search (Form E), Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), Children’s Personality Questionnaire
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Great gap between the developmental stage of children and that of counselors.
Myers-Briggs Theory
Not designed to be a theory of career development, but a theory of personality
The two most basic concepts are perception-judgment and extraversion-introversion.
PERCEIVING AND JUDGING
Two ways of PERCEIVING
Sensing:
· Taking in information through visual and auditory proceses along with smell, taste, and touch (direct perception)
· Prefer to observe, primarily through hearing, vision, and touch
· Focus on events immediately around them
Intuition:
· Concerns the use of the unconscious, indirect and adds ideas to external perceptions
· Perceive meanings in relation to events
· Takes intuition and goes beyond senes
· Focused on future event, not current
The Two Ways of JUDGING (After an Idea is Perceived, a Judgment is Made)
Thinking:
_ Analyzing and being objective about an observed idea or event
_ Concerned with logic or analysis
_ Tries to be objective
_ Concerned with judging fairly
Feeling:
_ Subjective reaction, often related to one’s values
_ Concerned with the impact of the judgment
_ Interested in human as opposed to technical problems
Combinations of Perceiving and Judging
Sensing and Thinking:
_ Likely to focus on collecting facts that can be verified by their observations
_ Want to see and hear what has happened
_ Choose occupations that demand analysis of facts
_ Law, business management, accounting, production, etc.
_ Practical and pragmatic
_ Rational decision-making process based on information from literature or people
Sensing and Feeling
_ Aware of the importance of feelings to themselves and others when making decisions
_ More interested in observations about people than objects
_ Medical, social work, teaching
_ Will focus more on information about people and occupations, being aware of how they’d feel in these jobs
Intuition and Feeling
_ Personal, warm, and inspired
_ Apt to take a creative approach to meeting human needs and be less concerned about objects
_ Clergy, teaching at college or high school level, advertising
_ Likely to use hunches based on what’s best for them
_ Emphasis on feeling about observations rather than weighing the observations themselves
Intuition and Thinking
_ Make decisions based on analysis
_ Enjoy solving problems, especially those that are theoretical
_ Research, computing, development of new projects
_ Likely to project themselves into the future, thinking about what types of work would provide particular opportunities
_ Clear and logical decision making for them
The Preference for Perception or Judgment
Some people prefer to make decisions based on relatively few facts (judgment), while others prefer to weigh many facts before reaching a judgment (perception).
People who have perceiving attitudes continue to take information in and do not decide.
People who have judging attitude tend to stop perceiving and make a judgment without including anymore evidence.
Judging people tend to have a sense of order in their lives, whereas perceiving people just live their lives.
EXTRAVERSION AND INTROVERSION
Introversion:
_ Making perceptions and judgments based on one’s interests in his or her inner world
_ Concepts and ideas in inner world are important
_ Enjoy thinking
_ Like to work out problems or think for a long time before acting
_ More quiet, not necessarily due to shyness
_ Activities where there is time for concentration
_ Science, accounting
Extraversion:
_ Based on outer world
_ People and objects in outer world
_ Like to take action
_ Want to work with people or things by talking and interacting
_ Speak directly to an individual
_ Verbal and physically active
_ Activities that provide contact with people
_ Sales and business, social service
THE 16 TYPE COMBINATIONS
Descriptions provide an overview of the characteristics of people who fit into the 16 types.
DOMINANT AND AUXILIARY PROCESS - COMPLEX CONCEPTS
USING THE MYERS-BRIGGS TYPOLOGY IN COUNSELING
There are frequent occupational choices that are made by people in each type.
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), the counselor can match the client’s Myers-Briggs type with the Myers-Briggs types of occupations.
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
The MBTI is crucial in the use of the theory. Several report forms exist.
APPLYING THE THEORY TO WOMEN AND CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
The MBTI has been translated into many languages. Studies have been done on gender and cultural differences.
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Myers suggests that counselors need to adjust their style when dealing with people who are different MBTI types.
The two most basic concepts are perception-judgment and extraversion-introversion.
PERCEIVING AND JUDGING
Two ways of PERCEIVING
Sensing:
· Taking in information through visual and auditory proceses along with smell, taste, and touch (direct perception)
· Prefer to observe, primarily through hearing, vision, and touch
· Focus on events immediately around them
Intuition:
· Concerns the use of the unconscious, indirect and adds ideas to external perceptions
· Perceive meanings in relation to events
· Takes intuition and goes beyond senes
· Focused on future event, not current
The Two Ways of JUDGING (After an Idea is Perceived, a Judgment is Made)
Thinking:
_ Analyzing and being objective about an observed idea or event
_ Concerned with logic or analysis
_ Tries to be objective
_ Concerned with judging fairly
Feeling:
_ Subjective reaction, often related to one’s values
_ Concerned with the impact of the judgment
_ Interested in human as opposed to technical problems
Combinations of Perceiving and Judging
Sensing and Thinking:
_ Likely to focus on collecting facts that can be verified by their observations
_ Want to see and hear what has happened
_ Choose occupations that demand analysis of facts
_ Law, business management, accounting, production, etc.
_ Practical and pragmatic
_ Rational decision-making process based on information from literature or people
Sensing and Feeling
_ Aware of the importance of feelings to themselves and others when making decisions
_ More interested in observations about people than objects
_ Medical, social work, teaching
_ Will focus more on information about people and occupations, being aware of how they’d feel in these jobs
Intuition and Feeling
_ Personal, warm, and inspired
_ Apt to take a creative approach to meeting human needs and be less concerned about objects
_ Clergy, teaching at college or high school level, advertising
_ Likely to use hunches based on what’s best for them
_ Emphasis on feeling about observations rather than weighing the observations themselves
Intuition and Thinking
_ Make decisions based on analysis
_ Enjoy solving problems, especially those that are theoretical
_ Research, computing, development of new projects
_ Likely to project themselves into the future, thinking about what types of work would provide particular opportunities
_ Clear and logical decision making for them
The Preference for Perception or Judgment
Some people prefer to make decisions based on relatively few facts (judgment), while others prefer to weigh many facts before reaching a judgment (perception).
People who have perceiving attitudes continue to take information in and do not decide.
People who have judging attitude tend to stop perceiving and make a judgment without including anymore evidence.
Judging people tend to have a sense of order in their lives, whereas perceiving people just live their lives.
EXTRAVERSION AND INTROVERSION
Introversion:
_ Making perceptions and judgments based on one’s interests in his or her inner world
_ Concepts and ideas in inner world are important
_ Enjoy thinking
_ Like to work out problems or think for a long time before acting
_ More quiet, not necessarily due to shyness
_ Activities where there is time for concentration
_ Science, accounting
Extraversion:
_ Based on outer world
_ People and objects in outer world
_ Like to take action
_ Want to work with people or things by talking and interacting
_ Speak directly to an individual
_ Verbal and physically active
_ Activities that provide contact with people
_ Sales and business, social service
THE 16 TYPE COMBINATIONS
Descriptions provide an overview of the characteristics of people who fit into the 16 types.
DOMINANT AND AUXILIARY PROCESS - COMPLEX CONCEPTS
USING THE MYERS-BRIGGS TYPOLOGY IN COUNSELING
There are frequent occupational choices that are made by people in each type.
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), the counselor can match the client’s Myers-Briggs type with the Myers-Briggs types of occupations.
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
The MBTI is crucial in the use of the theory. Several report forms exist.
APPLYING THE THEORY TO WOMEN AND CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
The MBTI has been translated into many languages. Studies have been done on gender and cultural differences.
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Myers suggests that counselors need to adjust their style when dealing with people who are different MBTI types.
Holland's Theory Of Types
Career choice and career adjustment represents an extension of a person’s personality.
Stereotypes – people’s impressions and generalizations about work. Holland uses this to assess personality.
Holland assigns both people and work environments to specific categories.
THE SIX TYPES
Realistic:
The Realistic Environment
· Physically demanding
· Work settings: have tools, machines, or animals that can be manipulated
· Technical competencies to fix machines, repair electronics, etc.
· Ability to work with things
· Construction sites, factories, auto garages
· Physical agility or strength
· Hazardous and may be cause for physical injury
The Realistic Personality Type
· Enjoy using tools and machines in hobbies
· Like courses that are very practical and teach the use of physical or mechanical skills
· Little tolerance of abstract and theoretical descriptions
· Practical, problem-solving manner
· Value money, power, and status over human relationships
Behavior of Realistic Clients
· Like to expect specific suggestions and advice to solve career problems – a practical solution
· Reluctant to discuss feelings
· Women may be harassed in these environments
Investigative:
The Investigative Environment
· Search for solutions through math and scientific interests
· Use complex and abstract thinking to solve problems creatively
· Computer programmers, doctors, mathematicians, biologists, etc.
· Cautious and critical thinking
· Logic and precise methodical thinking
· Use intellect to work independently to solve problems
· Not encouraged to use human relationship skills, nor machines
The Investigative Personality Type
_ Enjoy puzzles and challenges that require intellect
_ Enjoy learning and are confident about math and science
_ Seek to work independently to solve questions
_ Like courses in math and sciences
_ Not like to supervise other people
Behavior of Investigative Clients
_ Tend to enjoy the challenge of an unanswered question
_ Will solve a problem even if there is little financial or other reward
_ When solving career problem, they may want to solve it themselves from a rational point of view
_ They may view counselor as a fellow investigator, not an expert
Artistic:
The Artistic Environment
_ Free and open, encouraging creativity and personal expression
_ Freedom in developing products and answers
_ Musician, fine artist, freelance writer
_ Free to dress how they want to, keep few appointments, and structure their own time
_ Encourages personal and emotional expression, not logical
_ Tools are used for expression
The Artistic Personality Type
_ Likes the opportunity to express themselves in free and unsystematic way, creating music, art, or writing
_ Want to improve ability in language, art, music, or writing
_ Original and creative
_ Dislike technical writing and would prefer fiction or poetry
Behavior of Artistic Clients
_ Usually makes known how much art, music, writing is important to them
_ May prefer non-structured counseling session
_ Excitement centers on creative activity
_ Their expression may be unclear or appear disordered
_ Most likely to rely on emotions
Social:
The Social Environment
_ Encourages people to be flexible and understanding of each other
_ People can work with others through helping with personal or career issues, teaching, affecting spiritually, or being socially responsible
_ Emphasizes human values: idealism, kindness, friendliness, generosity
_ Education, social service, and mental health professions
_ Teacher, counselor, therapist, superintendent
The Social Personality Type
_ Interested in helping people through teaching, helping with personal or vocational problems, or providing personal service
_ Enjoy solving problems through discussion and teamwork
_ Prefer to talk and resolve complex that may be ethical in nature
_ Place to use verbal and social skills
Behavior of Social Clients
_ Express their idealism
_ Often altruistic, more concerned about others than their own financial gain
_ Value informationrmal activities
_ Interested in counselor and his/her work¼cooperative
_ Good candidates for group counseling, but also talkative
Enterprising:
The Enterprising Environment
_ Manage and persuade people in order to achieve organizational or personal goals
_ Finance and economic issues are important
_ Self-confident, sociable, assertive
_ Promotion and power are important¼persuasion and selling
_ Sales work, buying, business management, politics
The Enterprising Personality Type
_ Acquisition of wealth is a priority
_ Enjoy being with others and like verbal skills to sell, persuade, lead
_ Assertive and popular, holds leadership positions
Behavior of Enterprising Clients
_ Present themselves in a self-assured manner¼more than they feel sometimes
_ Open about their goal to get rich, but not all the time
_ Verbal, like social people
_ May be impatient with entry-level positions
Conventional:
The Conventional Environment
_ Organization and planning
_ Office environment¼keeping records, files, reports, etc.
_ Bookkeeping, accounting
_ Word processing, calculating, copy machines
_ Clerical skills, ability to organize, dependability, ability to follow directions
The Conventional Personality Type
_ Values money, being dependable, and the stability to follow rules and orders
_ Like to be in control of situations
_ Solves straightforward problems
Behavior of Conventional Clients
_ Like to present themselves as organized, yet dependent, on others for direction
_ Difficulty being open to examining new occupations or career paths on their own initiative
COMBINATION OF TYPES
3-letter codes
People do not fit just one Holland code type
Instruments have been developed: Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI), Self-Directed Search (SDS)
EXPLANATORY CONSTRUCTS
Congruence:
Relationship of the personality to the environment, the more similar the personality is to the environment, the more congruent the relationship.
Differentiation:
People and environments may differ in terms of how clearly they belong to one type. Highly differentiated means that you are more dominant in one type.
Consistency:
The similarity or dissimilarity of types.
Certain types have more in common with some types than others.
The closer the types are on the hexagon, the more consistent.
Consistency is NOT a goal of counseling.
Identity:
The clarity and stability of a person’s current and future goals (also of the environment)
Does not relate directly to Holland types.
RESEARCH ON HOLLAND’S CONSTRUCTS
Over 500 studies have been done on Holland’s theory. Congruence is the most frequent topic studied. Also important, relating Holland types to personality characteristics.
ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Holland uses The Occupational Finder, The Educational Opportunities Finder, and The Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes with the Self-Directed Search.
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
Vocational Preference Inventory - prior to the SDS (Self-Directed Search). An easy version of the SDS at sixth grade level and foreign language versions. Career Attitudes and Strategies Inventory, Position Classification Inventory; Environmental Identity Scale; My Vocational Situation - Identity.
APPLYING THE THEORY TO WOMEN
Women tend to score higher on Social, Artistic, and Conventional scales than men.
APPLYING THE THEORY TO CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
Holland’s theory has been studied in many countries.
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Congruence of client and counselor types is a potential issue.
Stereotypes – people’s impressions and generalizations about work. Holland uses this to assess personality.
Holland assigns both people and work environments to specific categories.
THE SIX TYPES
Realistic:
The Realistic Environment
· Physically demanding
· Work settings: have tools, machines, or animals that can be manipulated
· Technical competencies to fix machines, repair electronics, etc.
· Ability to work with things
· Construction sites, factories, auto garages
· Physical agility or strength
· Hazardous and may be cause for physical injury
The Realistic Personality Type
· Enjoy using tools and machines in hobbies
· Like courses that are very practical and teach the use of physical or mechanical skills
· Little tolerance of abstract and theoretical descriptions
· Practical, problem-solving manner
· Value money, power, and status over human relationships
Behavior of Realistic Clients
· Like to expect specific suggestions and advice to solve career problems – a practical solution
· Reluctant to discuss feelings
· Women may be harassed in these environments
Investigative:
The Investigative Environment
· Search for solutions through math and scientific interests
· Use complex and abstract thinking to solve problems creatively
· Computer programmers, doctors, mathematicians, biologists, etc.
· Cautious and critical thinking
· Logic and precise methodical thinking
· Use intellect to work independently to solve problems
· Not encouraged to use human relationship skills, nor machines
The Investigative Personality Type
_ Enjoy puzzles and challenges that require intellect
_ Enjoy learning and are confident about math and science
_ Seek to work independently to solve questions
_ Like courses in math and sciences
_ Not like to supervise other people
Behavior of Investigative Clients
_ Tend to enjoy the challenge of an unanswered question
_ Will solve a problem even if there is little financial or other reward
_ When solving career problem, they may want to solve it themselves from a rational point of view
_ They may view counselor as a fellow investigator, not an expert
Artistic:
The Artistic Environment
_ Free and open, encouraging creativity and personal expression
_ Freedom in developing products and answers
_ Musician, fine artist, freelance writer
_ Free to dress how they want to, keep few appointments, and structure their own time
_ Encourages personal and emotional expression, not logical
_ Tools are used for expression
The Artistic Personality Type
_ Likes the opportunity to express themselves in free and unsystematic way, creating music, art, or writing
_ Want to improve ability in language, art, music, or writing
_ Original and creative
_ Dislike technical writing and would prefer fiction or poetry
Behavior of Artistic Clients
_ Usually makes known how much art, music, writing is important to them
_ May prefer non-structured counseling session
_ Excitement centers on creative activity
_ Their expression may be unclear or appear disordered
_ Most likely to rely on emotions
Social:
The Social Environment
_ Encourages people to be flexible and understanding of each other
_ People can work with others through helping with personal or career issues, teaching, affecting spiritually, or being socially responsible
_ Emphasizes human values: idealism, kindness, friendliness, generosity
_ Education, social service, and mental health professions
_ Teacher, counselor, therapist, superintendent
The Social Personality Type
_ Interested in helping people through teaching, helping with personal or vocational problems, or providing personal service
_ Enjoy solving problems through discussion and teamwork
_ Prefer to talk and resolve complex that may be ethical in nature
_ Place to use verbal and social skills
Behavior of Social Clients
_ Express their idealism
_ Often altruistic, more concerned about others than their own financial gain
_ Value informationrmal activities
_ Interested in counselor and his/her work¼cooperative
_ Good candidates for group counseling, but also talkative
Enterprising:
The Enterprising Environment
_ Manage and persuade people in order to achieve organizational or personal goals
_ Finance and economic issues are important
_ Self-confident, sociable, assertive
_ Promotion and power are important¼persuasion and selling
_ Sales work, buying, business management, politics
The Enterprising Personality Type
_ Acquisition of wealth is a priority
_ Enjoy being with others and like verbal skills to sell, persuade, lead
_ Assertive and popular, holds leadership positions
Behavior of Enterprising Clients
_ Present themselves in a self-assured manner¼more than they feel sometimes
_ Open about their goal to get rich, but not all the time
_ Verbal, like social people
_ May be impatient with entry-level positions
Conventional:
The Conventional Environment
_ Organization and planning
_ Office environment¼keeping records, files, reports, etc.
_ Bookkeeping, accounting
_ Word processing, calculating, copy machines
_ Clerical skills, ability to organize, dependability, ability to follow directions
The Conventional Personality Type
_ Values money, being dependable, and the stability to follow rules and orders
_ Like to be in control of situations
_ Solves straightforward problems
Behavior of Conventional Clients
_ Like to present themselves as organized, yet dependent, on others for direction
_ Difficulty being open to examining new occupations or career paths on their own initiative
COMBINATION OF TYPES
3-letter codes
People do not fit just one Holland code type
Instruments have been developed: Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI), Self-Directed Search (SDS)
EXPLANATORY CONSTRUCTS
Congruence:
Relationship of the personality to the environment, the more similar the personality is to the environment, the more congruent the relationship.
Differentiation:
People and environments may differ in terms of how clearly they belong to one type. Highly differentiated means that you are more dominant in one type.
Consistency:
The similarity or dissimilarity of types.
Certain types have more in common with some types than others.
The closer the types are on the hexagon, the more consistent.
Consistency is NOT a goal of counseling.
Identity:
The clarity and stability of a person’s current and future goals (also of the environment)
Does not relate directly to Holland types.
RESEARCH ON HOLLAND’S CONSTRUCTS
Over 500 studies have been done on Holland’s theory. Congruence is the most frequent topic studied. Also important, relating Holland types to personality characteristics.
ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Holland uses The Occupational Finder, The Educational Opportunities Finder, and The Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes with the Self-Directed Search.
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
Vocational Preference Inventory - prior to the SDS (Self-Directed Search). An easy version of the SDS at sixth grade level and foreign language versions. Career Attitudes and Strategies Inventory, Position Classification Inventory; Environmental Identity Scale; My Vocational Situation - Identity.
APPLYING THE THEORY TO WOMEN
Women tend to score higher on Social, Artistic, and Conventional scales than men.
APPLYING THE THEORY TO CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
Holland’s theory has been studied in many countries.
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Congruence of client and counselor types is a potential issue.
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