Thursday, November 13, 2008

RELATIONAL APPROACHES TO CAREER DEVELOPMENT

ROE’S PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Roe’s Occupational Classification System
The theory predicts occupational selection based on individual differences, which are biological,
sociological, and psychological and specifically focuses on psychological needs that develop between the interactions of the parent and child.
- Roe believed that people in the same occupation were raised similarly.
- Roe developed a classification system that related parent-child relationships to occupational groupings.
- Roe classified early parent-child relationships into three types, each with two subclassifications.
- Roe was more interested in the attitudes of parents toward their children than in the specific ways in which parents behaved toward their children.

The Three Types of Parental Attitudes
_ Concentration on the child: being overprotective or overdemanding
_ Avoidance of the child: rejection and neglect
_ Acceptance of the child: causal acceptance and loving acceptance

Orientation Toward or Away from People
_ The variety of parental attitudes bring about certain types of personalities in the child

Relationship of Parental Style to Occupational Selection
_ Made prediction about occupational selection and how children developed certain attitudes toward or away from people (which depended on parents)

Research Support
_ Much of the research was based on memories¼may be faulty
_ Little evidence that early child-raising patterns predict later occupational entry.
_ Some evidence that different types of activities are chosen within an occupation.


ATTACHMENT THEORY

Attachment theory studies the role that attachments (primarily parental) play in shaping the life of an individual. The relationship that a baby has with others, especially the mother is crucial.

Bowlby – most well-known attachment theorist; studied the importance of
attachment, separation, and loss in human development;
effects on normal children;
particularly interested in how individuals’ sense of being worthwhile and views of their own competence develop along with their views of others.
Role of “attachment figures” was studied.

Three types of responding (Ainsworth, et al.)¼“strange situation” was used
_ Secure Pattern – infant responds to caregiver easily and continues exploratory behavior; interacts well with people and things in the world.
_ Anxious-Ambivalent Pattern – child becomes anxious because parent is inconsistent; child’s view of oneself is full of uncertainty; decreased exploratory behavior.
_ Avoidant Pattern – infant ignores or rejects care; developed a sense of being alone in the world and unable to trust others.

Some Research Observations
Children with a secure pattern of attachment in their first six years of life are more willing to explore relationships with others and more willing to play with objects or animals, activities leading eventually to greater familiarity with their world and the world of work.
Attachment predicted confidence in career decision making in some studies.
Attachment to mother contributes to fuller career exploration.


PARENT-CHILD CAREER INTERACTIONS

Joint Action – conversations between parents and child
* Focus on how parents and children perceive career decision making and their areas of agreement and disagreement.
* As families talk, they may establish closeness or a sense of separateness depending on the nature of the agreements or disagreements.
*Five-step method of including parents and children in career counseling:

Parent Involved Career Exploration [PICE], designed for students age 14-18, done in one session
_ Introduction
_ Pattern identification exercises [PIE] - Students talk about a leisure activity that went well and one that did not - consider pattern
_ Discussion of school preferences and performance
_ A perspective on education and labor market possibilities
_ Planning the next step

FAMILY SYSTEMS THERAPY

Enmeshed family – responsibilities in the family are unclear.
Disengaged family- responsibilities in the family are dictated by a parent.
Family relationships (such as enmeshment and disengagement) were stronger predictors of career development than gender, socioeconomic status, or educational achievement in one study.
When working with clients who are trying to figure out an occupation, it may be helpful to discuss family career patterns.
Genograms - (drawing relationships of family members) - a good method for examining family career patterns.


PHILLIPS’S DEVELOPMENTAL RELATIONSHIP MODEL

Unlike other relationship models discussed so far, Phillips and her colleagues look at relationships that include friends, siblings, teachers, peers, and others.

There have been previous studies that categorize types of relationships and their effect on career development. Phillips’s work is the most extensive, even though it is recent and uses small samples.

There are two major themes: Actions of Others (seven ways people involve themselves in career decision-making of others) and Self-Directedness (eight ways an individual may participate in finding other people to help in career decision-making).

Actions of Others - seven actions going from low involvement of others to high involvement of others.
1. Nonactive Support - not involved with decision-maker in making choice process
2. Unconditional Support - person thinks decision-maker is making a good decision.
3. Information Provided - person provides information to the decision-maker
4. Alternatives Provided - provide career related opportunities
5. Push-Nudge - attempt to guide an individual in a career direction
6. Forced Guidance - offering suggestions without considering the desires of the decision-maker
7. Criticism - tells a person what to do and criticizes them.

Self-Directedness - an increasing effectiveness of making good use of other people in career decision-making (eight categories)
1. Confident Independence (false confidence) - individuals appear to be confident but have not planned for the future
2. Unsuccessful Recruitment - individuals know they need help, but haven’t been able to get good assistance
3. Insecure Use of Others - seek out advice of others but unsure about ability to make decisions
4. Cautious - very careful not to make mistakes in decision-making
5. Seeking Information about the Self - unsure about interests, abilities, or values, and seek out others for their perspective
6. Weighing Options - ask others to help in one or more parts of the decision-making process
7. Sounding Board - talking out one’s point of view with others
8. Systematic - individuals consider the input of others but take responsibility for their own career decision-making

Individuals can be in one stage in Actions of Others and a very different step in Self-Directedness. Moving from one stage to another, especially in actions of others is often not sequential.

APPLYING THE THEORIES TO WOMEN AND CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS

Roe considered cultural and gender factors carefully in her theory.

Attachment theory has studied gender differences but found few.

Family therapy researchers have studied differences in child-raising patterns as they relate to culture and gender, but do not focus much on career development.

Phillips’s theory has not yet focused on culture and gender

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