Educational commitments to career choices are made during adolescence.
This chapter describes how cognitive and emotional factors bear on career decisions of adolescents.
FACTORS INFLUENCING ADOLESCENT CAREER DEVELOPMENT
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
Formal thought, the ability to think abstractly, ability to use logic (apt to be quite idealistic, expecting their world to be logical, when it isn’t). May be cause for conflict because adolescents start to believe that they are right and others are wrong.
Erikson says that adolescence is a time of identity and role confusion, which leads them to question the world.
GINZBERG’S TENTATIVE STAGE OF ADOLESCENT CAREER DEVELOPMENT
Three periods in the choice process
Fantasy stage (up to age 11): play and imagination in thinking about future work
Tentative stage: recognition of one’s interests, abilities, and values, as well as one’s knowledge of work
_ Development of interests
_ Development of capacities
_ Development of values
_ Transition period
Realistic stage (after age 17): specifying and crystallizing occupational choice
Development of Interests:
At about 11, children stop fantasizing and begin to make choices based on interests
Young boys’ choices were related to their fathers’ careers
Ability to judge competencies is limited and unimportant to them
Interests are the major factor in the selection and rejection of career choices during childhood
Development of Capacities:
Ages 13 – 14 (middle school)
More likely to asess their own abilities
Educational process becomes more important in preparation for work
More realistic view of themselves and their future
Development of Values:
Ages 15 – 16
Able to take their goals and values into consideration when making career decisions
May not know how to weigh their interests, capacities, and values, but they have the necessary building blocks for choice
Becoming aware that they have to make choices to fit into the complex world
They may consider making contributions to society and the world
Issues of marriage and life plans may emerge
Transition Period:
Ages 17 – 18 (last year of high school)
Decisions about college and majors
Aware of job availability
Career guidance usually includes an asessment of interests, capacities, and values
Comparison of Super and Ginzberg’s Stages
In general, the adolescent life stages of both theorists are very similar
Super does not include values in his overview because they are developed in several stages. Except for values, both theories place interests before capacities
Differences:
Super emphasizes recycling of stages, so time guidelines are not as important
Super believes that adolescents’ attitudes toward career and their knowledge of careers is important
Super thinks that adolescents enter stages about two years earlier than Ginzberg believes
CAREER MATURITY
Five major components (Super)
1. Orientation to vocational choice, using occupational information
2. Information and planning about an occupation
3. Consistency of vocational preference
4. Crystallization of traits
5. The wisdom of vocational preference
Super’s Conception of Career Maturity
Career Development Inventory, five Subscales:
Career Planning
This scale measures how much thought people have given to a variety of information-seeking activities and how much they feel they know about various aspects of work
Amount of planning is critical
Career planning – how much a student feels that he knows about these activities, not how much he actually knows
Career Exploration
Willingness to explore and look for information
How much information the student has acquired from the source
Decision Making
The ability to use knowledge and thought in career plans
World-of-Work Information
Knowledge of important developmental tasks
Knowledge of job duties in a few selected occupations, as well as job application behaviors
Knowledge of the Preferred Occupational Group - Choose from 20 groups
Realism (not tested)
Mixed affective and cognitive entity best assessed by combining personal, self-report, and objective data as in comparing the aptitudes of the individual with the aptitudes typical of the people in the occupation.
Is the career choice realistic?
Career Orientation Total
General term encompassing the previous concepts
Score gives a summary of the first 4 scales (excludes knowledge of preferred occupational group and realism)
IDENTITY AND CONTEXT
Based on Erikson’s work on identity and developed by Marcia and Vondracek
Vocational Identity, 4 developmental stages:
_ Diffusion – having few clear ideas of what one wants and not being concerned about the future
_ Moratorium – a time, often more than several months, in which one explores options while wanting a direction, but not having one
_ Foreclosure – making a choice, often based on family tradition, without exploring other options
_ Achievement – knowing what one wants and making plans to attain an occupational goal
Vondracek combines identity with attention to the context of the development
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Psychtalk - statements used to describe aptitudes, interests, and other characteristics of one’s self
Occtalk - statements about occupations
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT
CAREER DEVELOPMENT OF ADOLESCENTS FORM DIVERSE CULTURAL BACKGROUNDS
Applicability of career maturity studied for adolescents of different cultural backgrounds
Vocational aspirations differs for Latino, Latinas, Mexican Americans, and African Americans
GENDER ISSUES IN ADOLESCENCE
Females more interested in traditionally male careers than males were in female careers
Traditional pattern of females choosing clerical jobs, males choosing craft and labor positions
Females: lower and higher level prestige, males: mid-level prestige
Females tend to score higher than males on Career Development Inventory
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Dealing with adolescents’ egocentricity
Patience with adolescent search for identity
Adolescents may have a limited time perspective
Thursday, October 2, 2008
Career Development in Childhood
Career-related issues that affect child until age of 12
SUPER’S MODEL OF THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN
Curiosity:
Desire for knowledge or something new or unusual
Most basic of all needs and drives
Curiosity may develop when there are changes in an individual’s physical or social needs
May be prompted by hunger, thirst, loneliness, and other stimuli
Boredom, wish for excitement, or a desire for stimulation produces curiosity
Curiosity and fantasizing in young children should be encouraged
Exploration:
Act of searching or examining
Is a behavior
Curiosity leads to children exploring their environment
Information:
Piaget: major periods of cognitive development
_ Sensorimotor (birth – 2): infants attend to objects and events around them and then respond to these objects and events
Attending – sensory acts of touching, seeing, smelling, etc.
Responding – motor acts such as biting, hitting, screaming, etc.
_ Preoperational (2 – 7): learn to add and subtract, egocentric, young children cannot tell fantasy from reality
_ Concrete operational (7 – 11): Children think in concrete terms, they do not have to see an object to imagine manipulating it, but they must be aware that it exists
_ Formal operational (12 – beyond): think abstractly
Key Figures:
Adults are important role models
Parents, teachers, public figures are examples
Significant method of learning for children is imitation
Internal versus External Control:
Children begin to experience a feeling of control over their own surroundings
they begin to develop a feeling of autonomy and of being in control of future events
Development of Interests:
Fantasies of occupations are affected by information about the world, and they become interests.
Encouraging children’s emerging interests is helpful in the development of their career maturity.
Time Perspective:
Developing a sense of future
Unrealistic to ask children (especially below 4th grade) to think about planning future vocational training
Self-concept and Planfulness:
Sense of self begins to emerge in late childhood or early adolescence
USING SUPER’S MODEL IN COUNSELING CHILDREN
Typical elementary school guidance problems
_ Lack of academic progress
_ Dyslexia
_ Lack of reading achievement
_ Problems with sight, hearing, or ability
Typical family problems
_ Child abuse
_ Child neglect
_ Issues arising from single parent families
_ Divorce
_ Unwed parents
_ Stepfamilies
_ Working parents
GOTTFREDSON’S THEORY OF CIRCUMSCRIPTION, COMPROMISE, AND SELF-CREATION
A life-stage theory of career development in childhood and adolescence that emphasizes the importance of gender and prestige in making decisions (this gender and prestige emphasis is generally not in any other theories).
Socialization theory - biological factors become less and less important as individuals age.
Modern nature-nurture partnership theory - both biological and environmental factors influence each other and continue to do so throughout the life of the individual.
Niches - life settings and roles that individuals occupy.
Similar to other theorists, Gottfredson’s theory includes intelligence, vocational interest, competencies, and values.
Circumscription - The idea that various factors limit career choices at different ages.
The progressive elimination of unacceptable alternatives, leaving acceptable alternatives
The prediction that gender will influence occupational preferences from the age of 6 and up and prestige will influence preferences at 9 and up
Choices are circumscribed or limited
Four stages of cognitive development (provides a way for one to look at themselves in the world)
1. 3 – 5 years old: orientation to size and power
Children grasp the idea of becoming an adult by orienting themselves to the size difference between themselves and adults
2. 6 – 8 years old: orientation to gender roles
Become aware of the different gender roles of men and women
Their careers choices are influenced by their view of gender roles
3. 9 – 13 years old: affected by abstract ideas of social class
Prestige becomes an important factor in career choice
4. 14 years old and older: orientation to the Internal Unique Self;
Adolescents become more introspective and develop greater self-awareness and perceptiveness toward others
Develop a more insightful view of vocational aspirations as they are affected by the view of themselves, gender roles, and prestige
Gender-stereotyping
Children develop tolerable gender-type boundaries, beliefs that tell them that certain jobs are appropriate for a specific sex
Persuasive gender-stereotyping is found in schools
Compromise: the necessity of an individual to modify his or her career choices because of the reality of limiting environmental factors such as a competitive job market or not having sufficient academic performance to enter an academic program
May have to accept less attractive careers
Concerns the prediction that the earlier a stage occurs, the more resistant it will be to change and the less willing an individual will be to compromise on issues related to that stage
Gender type, prestige, and interest will be compromised (or sacrificed) in such a way that, when making a change in career choice, individuals will give up their interests first, then prestige, and then gender type.
This hypothesis deals with why women have a hard time considering non-traditional careers.
Implications of Gottfredson’s Theory for Super’s Theory
Super’s model does NOT deal with gender bias.
Gottfredson is consistent with the importance of career exploration unrestricted by gender-role stereotyping.
Thus, children should be able to EXPLORE.
Schools should provide non-gender –stereotyping material so that children can gather INFORMATION.
Schools are more likely then to provide an atmosphere that promotes a variety of INTERESTS.
If exploration and information are not gender-biased, the selection of KEY FIGURES is also more likely to be unbiased.
These concepts will eventually affect the child’s SELF-CONCEPT and ability to make career choices.
CAREER DEVELOPMENT FOR CHILDREN OF CULTURALLY DIVERSE BACKGROUNDS
Research suggests that African American and Hispanic children may be impeded in their exposure to exploratory activities in finding information that would enhance their development.
Counselors should provide the same opportunities for all children.
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
School-to-Work – provision of occupational information through the educational system.
1. Infusion of occupational information into the classroom through films, oral reports on occupations, or development of interest centers in class
2. Less formal approach includes group activities such as skits using terms from the world of work, crossword puzzles with work terms, comparing lists of interests, abilities, and achievements with requirements of occupations
3. Community involvement, field trips
Experiential Career Guidance Model
Activities designed for preschool children
Sensitive to children’s limited time perspective
Activities focus on the family and home, such as a play store or library
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
A few inventories for children, such as Holland’s Self-Directed Search (Form E), Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), Children’s Personality Questionnaire
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Great gap between the developmental stage of children and that of counselors.
SUPER’S MODEL OF THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN
Curiosity:
Desire for knowledge or something new or unusual
Most basic of all needs and drives
Curiosity may develop when there are changes in an individual’s physical or social needs
May be prompted by hunger, thirst, loneliness, and other stimuli
Boredom, wish for excitement, or a desire for stimulation produces curiosity
Curiosity and fantasizing in young children should be encouraged
Exploration:
Act of searching or examining
Is a behavior
Curiosity leads to children exploring their environment
Information:
Piaget: major periods of cognitive development
_ Sensorimotor (birth – 2): infants attend to objects and events around them and then respond to these objects and events
Attending – sensory acts of touching, seeing, smelling, etc.
Responding – motor acts such as biting, hitting, screaming, etc.
_ Preoperational (2 – 7): learn to add and subtract, egocentric, young children cannot tell fantasy from reality
_ Concrete operational (7 – 11): Children think in concrete terms, they do not have to see an object to imagine manipulating it, but they must be aware that it exists
_ Formal operational (12 – beyond): think abstractly
Key Figures:
Adults are important role models
Parents, teachers, public figures are examples
Significant method of learning for children is imitation
Internal versus External Control:
Children begin to experience a feeling of control over their own surroundings
they begin to develop a feeling of autonomy and of being in control of future events
Development of Interests:
Fantasies of occupations are affected by information about the world, and they become interests.
Encouraging children’s emerging interests is helpful in the development of their career maturity.
Time Perspective:
Developing a sense of future
Unrealistic to ask children (especially below 4th grade) to think about planning future vocational training
Self-concept and Planfulness:
Sense of self begins to emerge in late childhood or early adolescence
USING SUPER’S MODEL IN COUNSELING CHILDREN
Typical elementary school guidance problems
_ Lack of academic progress
_ Dyslexia
_ Lack of reading achievement
_ Problems with sight, hearing, or ability
Typical family problems
_ Child abuse
_ Child neglect
_ Issues arising from single parent families
_ Divorce
_ Unwed parents
_ Stepfamilies
_ Working parents
GOTTFREDSON’S THEORY OF CIRCUMSCRIPTION, COMPROMISE, AND SELF-CREATION
A life-stage theory of career development in childhood and adolescence that emphasizes the importance of gender and prestige in making decisions (this gender and prestige emphasis is generally not in any other theories).
Socialization theory - biological factors become less and less important as individuals age.
Modern nature-nurture partnership theory - both biological and environmental factors influence each other and continue to do so throughout the life of the individual.
Niches - life settings and roles that individuals occupy.
Similar to other theorists, Gottfredson’s theory includes intelligence, vocational interest, competencies, and values.
Circumscription - The idea that various factors limit career choices at different ages.
The progressive elimination of unacceptable alternatives, leaving acceptable alternatives
The prediction that gender will influence occupational preferences from the age of 6 and up and prestige will influence preferences at 9 and up
Choices are circumscribed or limited
Four stages of cognitive development (provides a way for one to look at themselves in the world)
1. 3 – 5 years old: orientation to size and power
Children grasp the idea of becoming an adult by orienting themselves to the size difference between themselves and adults
2. 6 – 8 years old: orientation to gender roles
Become aware of the different gender roles of men and women
Their careers choices are influenced by their view of gender roles
3. 9 – 13 years old: affected by abstract ideas of social class
Prestige becomes an important factor in career choice
4. 14 years old and older: orientation to the Internal Unique Self;
Adolescents become more introspective and develop greater self-awareness and perceptiveness toward others
Develop a more insightful view of vocational aspirations as they are affected by the view of themselves, gender roles, and prestige
Gender-stereotyping
Children develop tolerable gender-type boundaries, beliefs that tell them that certain jobs are appropriate for a specific sex
Persuasive gender-stereotyping is found in schools
Compromise: the necessity of an individual to modify his or her career choices because of the reality of limiting environmental factors such as a competitive job market or not having sufficient academic performance to enter an academic program
May have to accept less attractive careers
Concerns the prediction that the earlier a stage occurs, the more resistant it will be to change and the less willing an individual will be to compromise on issues related to that stage
Gender type, prestige, and interest will be compromised (or sacrificed) in such a way that, when making a change in career choice, individuals will give up their interests first, then prestige, and then gender type.
This hypothesis deals with why women have a hard time considering non-traditional careers.
Implications of Gottfredson’s Theory for Super’s Theory
Super’s model does NOT deal with gender bias.
Gottfredson is consistent with the importance of career exploration unrestricted by gender-role stereotyping.
Thus, children should be able to EXPLORE.
Schools should provide non-gender –stereotyping material so that children can gather INFORMATION.
Schools are more likely then to provide an atmosphere that promotes a variety of INTERESTS.
If exploration and information are not gender-biased, the selection of KEY FIGURES is also more likely to be unbiased.
These concepts will eventually affect the child’s SELF-CONCEPT and ability to make career choices.
CAREER DEVELOPMENT FOR CHILDREN OF CULTURALLY DIVERSE BACKGROUNDS
Research suggests that African American and Hispanic children may be impeded in their exposure to exploratory activities in finding information that would enhance their development.
Counselors should provide the same opportunities for all children.
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
School-to-Work – provision of occupational information through the educational system.
1. Infusion of occupational information into the classroom through films, oral reports on occupations, or development of interest centers in class
2. Less formal approach includes group activities such as skits using terms from the world of work, crossword puzzles with work terms, comparing lists of interests, abilities, and achievements with requirements of occupations
3. Community involvement, field trips
Experiential Career Guidance Model
Activities designed for preschool children
Sensitive to children’s limited time perspective
Activities focus on the family and home, such as a play store or library
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
A few inventories for children, such as Holland’s Self-Directed Search (Form E), Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), Children’s Personality Questionnaire
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Great gap between the developmental stage of children and that of counselors.
Myers-Briggs Theory
Not designed to be a theory of career development, but a theory of personality
The two most basic concepts are perception-judgment and extraversion-introversion.
PERCEIVING AND JUDGING
Two ways of PERCEIVING
Sensing:
· Taking in information through visual and auditory proceses along with smell, taste, and touch (direct perception)
· Prefer to observe, primarily through hearing, vision, and touch
· Focus on events immediately around them
Intuition:
· Concerns the use of the unconscious, indirect and adds ideas to external perceptions
· Perceive meanings in relation to events
· Takes intuition and goes beyond senes
· Focused on future event, not current
The Two Ways of JUDGING (After an Idea is Perceived, a Judgment is Made)
Thinking:
_ Analyzing and being objective about an observed idea or event
_ Concerned with logic or analysis
_ Tries to be objective
_ Concerned with judging fairly
Feeling:
_ Subjective reaction, often related to one’s values
_ Concerned with the impact of the judgment
_ Interested in human as opposed to technical problems
Combinations of Perceiving and Judging
Sensing and Thinking:
_ Likely to focus on collecting facts that can be verified by their observations
_ Want to see and hear what has happened
_ Choose occupations that demand analysis of facts
_ Law, business management, accounting, production, etc.
_ Practical and pragmatic
_ Rational decision-making process based on information from literature or people
Sensing and Feeling
_ Aware of the importance of feelings to themselves and others when making decisions
_ More interested in observations about people than objects
_ Medical, social work, teaching
_ Will focus more on information about people and occupations, being aware of how they’d feel in these jobs
Intuition and Feeling
_ Personal, warm, and inspired
_ Apt to take a creative approach to meeting human needs and be less concerned about objects
_ Clergy, teaching at college or high school level, advertising
_ Likely to use hunches based on what’s best for them
_ Emphasis on feeling about observations rather than weighing the observations themselves
Intuition and Thinking
_ Make decisions based on analysis
_ Enjoy solving problems, especially those that are theoretical
_ Research, computing, development of new projects
_ Likely to project themselves into the future, thinking about what types of work would provide particular opportunities
_ Clear and logical decision making for them
The Preference for Perception or Judgment
Some people prefer to make decisions based on relatively few facts (judgment), while others prefer to weigh many facts before reaching a judgment (perception).
People who have perceiving attitudes continue to take information in and do not decide.
People who have judging attitude tend to stop perceiving and make a judgment without including anymore evidence.
Judging people tend to have a sense of order in their lives, whereas perceiving people just live their lives.
EXTRAVERSION AND INTROVERSION
Introversion:
_ Making perceptions and judgments based on one’s interests in his or her inner world
_ Concepts and ideas in inner world are important
_ Enjoy thinking
_ Like to work out problems or think for a long time before acting
_ More quiet, not necessarily due to shyness
_ Activities where there is time for concentration
_ Science, accounting
Extraversion:
_ Based on outer world
_ People and objects in outer world
_ Like to take action
_ Want to work with people or things by talking and interacting
_ Speak directly to an individual
_ Verbal and physically active
_ Activities that provide contact with people
_ Sales and business, social service
THE 16 TYPE COMBINATIONS
Descriptions provide an overview of the characteristics of people who fit into the 16 types.
DOMINANT AND AUXILIARY PROCESS - COMPLEX CONCEPTS
USING THE MYERS-BRIGGS TYPOLOGY IN COUNSELING
There are frequent occupational choices that are made by people in each type.
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), the counselor can match the client’s Myers-Briggs type with the Myers-Briggs types of occupations.
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
The MBTI is crucial in the use of the theory. Several report forms exist.
APPLYING THE THEORY TO WOMEN AND CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
The MBTI has been translated into many languages. Studies have been done on gender and cultural differences.
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Myers suggests that counselors need to adjust their style when dealing with people who are different MBTI types.
The two most basic concepts are perception-judgment and extraversion-introversion.
PERCEIVING AND JUDGING
Two ways of PERCEIVING
Sensing:
· Taking in information through visual and auditory proceses along with smell, taste, and touch (direct perception)
· Prefer to observe, primarily through hearing, vision, and touch
· Focus on events immediately around them
Intuition:
· Concerns the use of the unconscious, indirect and adds ideas to external perceptions
· Perceive meanings in relation to events
· Takes intuition and goes beyond senes
· Focused on future event, not current
The Two Ways of JUDGING (After an Idea is Perceived, a Judgment is Made)
Thinking:
_ Analyzing and being objective about an observed idea or event
_ Concerned with logic or analysis
_ Tries to be objective
_ Concerned with judging fairly
Feeling:
_ Subjective reaction, often related to one’s values
_ Concerned with the impact of the judgment
_ Interested in human as opposed to technical problems
Combinations of Perceiving and Judging
Sensing and Thinking:
_ Likely to focus on collecting facts that can be verified by their observations
_ Want to see and hear what has happened
_ Choose occupations that demand analysis of facts
_ Law, business management, accounting, production, etc.
_ Practical and pragmatic
_ Rational decision-making process based on information from literature or people
Sensing and Feeling
_ Aware of the importance of feelings to themselves and others when making decisions
_ More interested in observations about people than objects
_ Medical, social work, teaching
_ Will focus more on information about people and occupations, being aware of how they’d feel in these jobs
Intuition and Feeling
_ Personal, warm, and inspired
_ Apt to take a creative approach to meeting human needs and be less concerned about objects
_ Clergy, teaching at college or high school level, advertising
_ Likely to use hunches based on what’s best for them
_ Emphasis on feeling about observations rather than weighing the observations themselves
Intuition and Thinking
_ Make decisions based on analysis
_ Enjoy solving problems, especially those that are theoretical
_ Research, computing, development of new projects
_ Likely to project themselves into the future, thinking about what types of work would provide particular opportunities
_ Clear and logical decision making for them
The Preference for Perception or Judgment
Some people prefer to make decisions based on relatively few facts (judgment), while others prefer to weigh many facts before reaching a judgment (perception).
People who have perceiving attitudes continue to take information in and do not decide.
People who have judging attitude tend to stop perceiving and make a judgment without including anymore evidence.
Judging people tend to have a sense of order in their lives, whereas perceiving people just live their lives.
EXTRAVERSION AND INTROVERSION
Introversion:
_ Making perceptions and judgments based on one’s interests in his or her inner world
_ Concepts and ideas in inner world are important
_ Enjoy thinking
_ Like to work out problems or think for a long time before acting
_ More quiet, not necessarily due to shyness
_ Activities where there is time for concentration
_ Science, accounting
Extraversion:
_ Based on outer world
_ People and objects in outer world
_ Like to take action
_ Want to work with people or things by talking and interacting
_ Speak directly to an individual
_ Verbal and physically active
_ Activities that provide contact with people
_ Sales and business, social service
THE 16 TYPE COMBINATIONS
Descriptions provide an overview of the characteristics of people who fit into the 16 types.
DOMINANT AND AUXILIARY PROCESS - COMPLEX CONCEPTS
USING THE MYERS-BRIGGS TYPOLOGY IN COUNSELING
There are frequent occupational choices that are made by people in each type.
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), the counselor can match the client’s Myers-Briggs type with the Myers-Briggs types of occupations.
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
The MBTI is crucial in the use of the theory. Several report forms exist.
APPLYING THE THEORY TO WOMEN AND CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
The MBTI has been translated into many languages. Studies have been done on gender and cultural differences.
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Myers suggests that counselors need to adjust their style when dealing with people who are different MBTI types.
Holland's Theory Of Types
Career choice and career adjustment represents an extension of a person’s personality.
Stereotypes – people’s impressions and generalizations about work. Holland uses this to assess personality.
Holland assigns both people and work environments to specific categories.
THE SIX TYPES
Realistic:
The Realistic Environment
· Physically demanding
· Work settings: have tools, machines, or animals that can be manipulated
· Technical competencies to fix machines, repair electronics, etc.
· Ability to work with things
· Construction sites, factories, auto garages
· Physical agility or strength
· Hazardous and may be cause for physical injury
The Realistic Personality Type
· Enjoy using tools and machines in hobbies
· Like courses that are very practical and teach the use of physical or mechanical skills
· Little tolerance of abstract and theoretical descriptions
· Practical, problem-solving manner
· Value money, power, and status over human relationships
Behavior of Realistic Clients
· Like to expect specific suggestions and advice to solve career problems – a practical solution
· Reluctant to discuss feelings
· Women may be harassed in these environments
Investigative:
The Investigative Environment
· Search for solutions through math and scientific interests
· Use complex and abstract thinking to solve problems creatively
· Computer programmers, doctors, mathematicians, biologists, etc.
· Cautious and critical thinking
· Logic and precise methodical thinking
· Use intellect to work independently to solve problems
· Not encouraged to use human relationship skills, nor machines
The Investigative Personality Type
_ Enjoy puzzles and challenges that require intellect
_ Enjoy learning and are confident about math and science
_ Seek to work independently to solve questions
_ Like courses in math and sciences
_ Not like to supervise other people
Behavior of Investigative Clients
_ Tend to enjoy the challenge of an unanswered question
_ Will solve a problem even if there is little financial or other reward
_ When solving career problem, they may want to solve it themselves from a rational point of view
_ They may view counselor as a fellow investigator, not an expert
Artistic:
The Artistic Environment
_ Free and open, encouraging creativity and personal expression
_ Freedom in developing products and answers
_ Musician, fine artist, freelance writer
_ Free to dress how they want to, keep few appointments, and structure their own time
_ Encourages personal and emotional expression, not logical
_ Tools are used for expression
The Artistic Personality Type
_ Likes the opportunity to express themselves in free and unsystematic way, creating music, art, or writing
_ Want to improve ability in language, art, music, or writing
_ Original and creative
_ Dislike technical writing and would prefer fiction or poetry
Behavior of Artistic Clients
_ Usually makes known how much art, music, writing is important to them
_ May prefer non-structured counseling session
_ Excitement centers on creative activity
_ Their expression may be unclear or appear disordered
_ Most likely to rely on emotions
Social:
The Social Environment
_ Encourages people to be flexible and understanding of each other
_ People can work with others through helping with personal or career issues, teaching, affecting spiritually, or being socially responsible
_ Emphasizes human values: idealism, kindness, friendliness, generosity
_ Education, social service, and mental health professions
_ Teacher, counselor, therapist, superintendent
The Social Personality Type
_ Interested in helping people through teaching, helping with personal or vocational problems, or providing personal service
_ Enjoy solving problems through discussion and teamwork
_ Prefer to talk and resolve complex that may be ethical in nature
_ Place to use verbal and social skills
Behavior of Social Clients
_ Express their idealism
_ Often altruistic, more concerned about others than their own financial gain
_ Value informationrmal activities
_ Interested in counselor and his/her work¼cooperative
_ Good candidates for group counseling, but also talkative
Enterprising:
The Enterprising Environment
_ Manage and persuade people in order to achieve organizational or personal goals
_ Finance and economic issues are important
_ Self-confident, sociable, assertive
_ Promotion and power are important¼persuasion and selling
_ Sales work, buying, business management, politics
The Enterprising Personality Type
_ Acquisition of wealth is a priority
_ Enjoy being with others and like verbal skills to sell, persuade, lead
_ Assertive and popular, holds leadership positions
Behavior of Enterprising Clients
_ Present themselves in a self-assured manner¼more than they feel sometimes
_ Open about their goal to get rich, but not all the time
_ Verbal, like social people
_ May be impatient with entry-level positions
Conventional:
The Conventional Environment
_ Organization and planning
_ Office environment¼keeping records, files, reports, etc.
_ Bookkeeping, accounting
_ Word processing, calculating, copy machines
_ Clerical skills, ability to organize, dependability, ability to follow directions
The Conventional Personality Type
_ Values money, being dependable, and the stability to follow rules and orders
_ Like to be in control of situations
_ Solves straightforward problems
Behavior of Conventional Clients
_ Like to present themselves as organized, yet dependent, on others for direction
_ Difficulty being open to examining new occupations or career paths on their own initiative
COMBINATION OF TYPES
3-letter codes
People do not fit just one Holland code type
Instruments have been developed: Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI), Self-Directed Search (SDS)
EXPLANATORY CONSTRUCTS
Congruence:
Relationship of the personality to the environment, the more similar the personality is to the environment, the more congruent the relationship.
Differentiation:
People and environments may differ in terms of how clearly they belong to one type. Highly differentiated means that you are more dominant in one type.
Consistency:
The similarity or dissimilarity of types.
Certain types have more in common with some types than others.
The closer the types are on the hexagon, the more consistent.
Consistency is NOT a goal of counseling.
Identity:
The clarity and stability of a person’s current and future goals (also of the environment)
Does not relate directly to Holland types.
RESEARCH ON HOLLAND’S CONSTRUCTS
Over 500 studies have been done on Holland’s theory. Congruence is the most frequent topic studied. Also important, relating Holland types to personality characteristics.
ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Holland uses The Occupational Finder, The Educational Opportunities Finder, and The Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes with the Self-Directed Search.
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
Vocational Preference Inventory - prior to the SDS (Self-Directed Search). An easy version of the SDS at sixth grade level and foreign language versions. Career Attitudes and Strategies Inventory, Position Classification Inventory; Environmental Identity Scale; My Vocational Situation - Identity.
APPLYING THE THEORY TO WOMEN
Women tend to score higher on Social, Artistic, and Conventional scales than men.
APPLYING THE THEORY TO CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
Holland’s theory has been studied in many countries.
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Congruence of client and counselor types is a potential issue.
Stereotypes – people’s impressions and generalizations about work. Holland uses this to assess personality.
Holland assigns both people and work environments to specific categories.
THE SIX TYPES
Realistic:
The Realistic Environment
· Physically demanding
· Work settings: have tools, machines, or animals that can be manipulated
· Technical competencies to fix machines, repair electronics, etc.
· Ability to work with things
· Construction sites, factories, auto garages
· Physical agility or strength
· Hazardous and may be cause for physical injury
The Realistic Personality Type
· Enjoy using tools and machines in hobbies
· Like courses that are very practical and teach the use of physical or mechanical skills
· Little tolerance of abstract and theoretical descriptions
· Practical, problem-solving manner
· Value money, power, and status over human relationships
Behavior of Realistic Clients
· Like to expect specific suggestions and advice to solve career problems – a practical solution
· Reluctant to discuss feelings
· Women may be harassed in these environments
Investigative:
The Investigative Environment
· Search for solutions through math and scientific interests
· Use complex and abstract thinking to solve problems creatively
· Computer programmers, doctors, mathematicians, biologists, etc.
· Cautious and critical thinking
· Logic and precise methodical thinking
· Use intellect to work independently to solve problems
· Not encouraged to use human relationship skills, nor machines
The Investigative Personality Type
_ Enjoy puzzles and challenges that require intellect
_ Enjoy learning and are confident about math and science
_ Seek to work independently to solve questions
_ Like courses in math and sciences
_ Not like to supervise other people
Behavior of Investigative Clients
_ Tend to enjoy the challenge of an unanswered question
_ Will solve a problem even if there is little financial or other reward
_ When solving career problem, they may want to solve it themselves from a rational point of view
_ They may view counselor as a fellow investigator, not an expert
Artistic:
The Artistic Environment
_ Free and open, encouraging creativity and personal expression
_ Freedom in developing products and answers
_ Musician, fine artist, freelance writer
_ Free to dress how they want to, keep few appointments, and structure their own time
_ Encourages personal and emotional expression, not logical
_ Tools are used for expression
The Artistic Personality Type
_ Likes the opportunity to express themselves in free and unsystematic way, creating music, art, or writing
_ Want to improve ability in language, art, music, or writing
_ Original and creative
_ Dislike technical writing and would prefer fiction or poetry
Behavior of Artistic Clients
_ Usually makes known how much art, music, writing is important to them
_ May prefer non-structured counseling session
_ Excitement centers on creative activity
_ Their expression may be unclear or appear disordered
_ Most likely to rely on emotions
Social:
The Social Environment
_ Encourages people to be flexible and understanding of each other
_ People can work with others through helping with personal or career issues, teaching, affecting spiritually, or being socially responsible
_ Emphasizes human values: idealism, kindness, friendliness, generosity
_ Education, social service, and mental health professions
_ Teacher, counselor, therapist, superintendent
The Social Personality Type
_ Interested in helping people through teaching, helping with personal or vocational problems, or providing personal service
_ Enjoy solving problems through discussion and teamwork
_ Prefer to talk and resolve complex that may be ethical in nature
_ Place to use verbal and social skills
Behavior of Social Clients
_ Express their idealism
_ Often altruistic, more concerned about others than their own financial gain
_ Value informationrmal activities
_ Interested in counselor and his/her work¼cooperative
_ Good candidates for group counseling, but also talkative
Enterprising:
The Enterprising Environment
_ Manage and persuade people in order to achieve organizational or personal goals
_ Finance and economic issues are important
_ Self-confident, sociable, assertive
_ Promotion and power are important¼persuasion and selling
_ Sales work, buying, business management, politics
The Enterprising Personality Type
_ Acquisition of wealth is a priority
_ Enjoy being with others and like verbal skills to sell, persuade, lead
_ Assertive and popular, holds leadership positions
Behavior of Enterprising Clients
_ Present themselves in a self-assured manner¼more than they feel sometimes
_ Open about their goal to get rich, but not all the time
_ Verbal, like social people
_ May be impatient with entry-level positions
Conventional:
The Conventional Environment
_ Organization and planning
_ Office environment¼keeping records, files, reports, etc.
_ Bookkeeping, accounting
_ Word processing, calculating, copy machines
_ Clerical skills, ability to organize, dependability, ability to follow directions
The Conventional Personality Type
_ Values money, being dependable, and the stability to follow rules and orders
_ Like to be in control of situations
_ Solves straightforward problems
Behavior of Conventional Clients
_ Like to present themselves as organized, yet dependent, on others for direction
_ Difficulty being open to examining new occupations or career paths on their own initiative
COMBINATION OF TYPES
3-letter codes
People do not fit just one Holland code type
Instruments have been developed: Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI), Self-Directed Search (SDS)
EXPLANATORY CONSTRUCTS
Congruence:
Relationship of the personality to the environment, the more similar the personality is to the environment, the more congruent the relationship.
Differentiation:
People and environments may differ in terms of how clearly they belong to one type. Highly differentiated means that you are more dominant in one type.
Consistency:
The similarity or dissimilarity of types.
Certain types have more in common with some types than others.
The closer the types are on the hexagon, the more consistent.
Consistency is NOT a goal of counseling.
Identity:
The clarity and stability of a person’s current and future goals (also of the environment)
Does not relate directly to Holland types.
RESEARCH ON HOLLAND’S CONSTRUCTS
Over 500 studies have been done on Holland’s theory. Congruence is the most frequent topic studied. Also important, relating Holland types to personality characteristics.
ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Holland uses The Occupational Finder, The Educational Opportunities Finder, and The Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes with the Self-Directed Search.
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
Vocational Preference Inventory - prior to the SDS (Self-Directed Search). An easy version of the SDS at sixth grade level and foreign language versions. Career Attitudes and Strategies Inventory, Position Classification Inventory; Environmental Identity Scale; My Vocational Situation - Identity.
APPLYING THE THEORY TO WOMEN
Women tend to score higher on Social, Artistic, and Conventional scales than men.
APPLYING THE THEORY TO CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
Holland’s theory has been studied in many countries.
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Congruence of client and counselor types is a potential issue.
Work Adjustment Theory
Most applicable to adults who wish to make career choices or are experiencing work adjustment problems
Consists of 18 propositions and corollaries which predict work adjustment
Work Adjustment – a continuous and dynamic process by which a worker seeks to achieve and maintain correspondence with a work environment. Work adjustment is indicated by length of time, or tenure, on the job.
This theory is concerned with actual job performance, not just career selection or work adjustment.
Two major components to the prediction of work adjustment:
Satisfaction: being satisfied with the work one does, the extent to which a person’s needs and requirements are being met by the work being done.
Satisfactoriness: the employer’s satisfaction with the individual’s performance, concerns the appraisal of others, usually supervisors, of the extent to which an individual adequately completes the work that is assigned to him/her
STEP 1 - ASSESSMENT ABILITIES, VALUES, PERSONALITY and INTERESTS
Abilities: reference dimensions for skills (work skills), encompasses aptitudes, need assessment statements of abilities in order to conceptualize a vast array of work skills
To assess abilities, they used GATB – incorporates abilities required for many jobs and measures a broader base of abilities than many academic tests.
Values: represents a grouping of needs, the number of needs are fewer than skills
To assess values and needs, they developed the Minnesota Importance Questionnaire (MIQ)
· method of measuring the importance of needs that emerge from experience
· 20 need scales characterize important work-related concepts
· 6 values derived from 20 needs, 3 negatively correlated pairs
Achievement (making use of one’s abilities and having a sense of accomplishment) vs. comfort (non-stressful work environment)
status (how one is perceived by others and the recognition one gets) vs. altruism (how one can help or work with others)
safety (orderliness and predictability) vs. autonomy (opportunity to work on their own)
Personality Styles: concerned with how an individual with particular abilities and values interacts with his or her work situation
Four characteristics of personality style:
_ celerity: speed with which one approaches tasks
_ pace: effort one spends in working
_ rhythm: the pattern of one’s effort or pace
_ endurance: how long one is likely to continue working on a task
Interests: derived from values and abilities in that they are an expression of ability-value relationships. Work values are better indicators of job satisfaction than interests, according to researchers.
STEP 2 – MEASURING THE REQUIREMENTS AND CONDITIONS OF OCCUPATIONS
There are methods to measure the abilities and values needed for many occupations. This is done by averaging scores for people in various occupations on the GATB and MIQ.
Ability Patterns: important abilities that are required for a great variety of jobs.
Set of GATB ability requirements was developed for each occupation and cutoff scores were selected. Those scoring above this cutoff were successful in their jobs. So if a client was taking the GATB, you would compare his score with successful employees and see if they match.
Value Patterns: developed the Minnesota Job Description Questionnaire (MJDQ), which assesses how well an occupation reinforces or meets each of the 20 needs.
Combining Ability and Value Patterns: combined data used to create the Minnesota Occupational Classification System (MOCS)
STEP 3 - MATCHING ABILITIES, VALUES, AND REINFORCERS
When matching values and abilities with the Occupational Ability Patterns and Occupational Reinforcer Patterns, the counselor can use (1) MIQ, (2) GATB, (3) MOCS
Adjustment Style: the degree of fit between person and the environment, how an individual relates to the occupational environment
Four qualities describe this fit:
· flexibility - the ability of a person to tolerate unpleasant or difficult aspects of the job
· activeness – trying to change the environment
· reactiveness – changing themselves
· perseverance – how long a person can take adverse conditions before changing jobs
JOB ADJUSTMENT COUNSELING
Work adjustment theory can be used to conceptualize the types of problems that someone can have in adjusting to a job (i.e. their skills may not be fully developed for the job or may not be able to fully develop them, values and needs are not met on the job, does not understand the reinforcer patterns of the work involved, or person could be having problems at home which affect work).
Counselor assesses client’s work personality (MIQ, GATB) and working environment.
Assess discrepancies between the individual’s values and abilities and the ability patterns and reinforcer patterns of the job.
Make changes in the work itself so that reinforcer patterns are altered.
ADJUSTMENT TO RETIREMENT
Try to find work in a non-work environment that has the same abilities and reinforcers as their previous job.
NEW DEVELOPMENTS
Work adjustment theory is applied to young, gifted adolescents
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS - MIQ, MJDQ, MSQ (MINNESOTA
SATISFACTION QUESTIONNAIRE), MSS (MINNESOTA SATISFACTION SCALES)
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION - USE OF THE MINNESOTA OCCUPATIONAL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
APPLYING THE THEORY TO WOMEN AND CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
Focus on large differences within groups rather than small differences existing between groups.
COUNSELOR ISSUES: Counselor and client are reinforcers for each other.
Consists of 18 propositions and corollaries which predict work adjustment
Work Adjustment – a continuous and dynamic process by which a worker seeks to achieve and maintain correspondence with a work environment. Work adjustment is indicated by length of time, or tenure, on the job.
This theory is concerned with actual job performance, not just career selection or work adjustment.
Two major components to the prediction of work adjustment:
Satisfaction: being satisfied with the work one does, the extent to which a person’s needs and requirements are being met by the work being done.
Satisfactoriness: the employer’s satisfaction with the individual’s performance, concerns the appraisal of others, usually supervisors, of the extent to which an individual adequately completes the work that is assigned to him/her
STEP 1 - ASSESSMENT ABILITIES, VALUES, PERSONALITY and INTERESTS
Abilities: reference dimensions for skills (work skills), encompasses aptitudes, need assessment statements of abilities in order to conceptualize a vast array of work skills
To assess abilities, they used GATB – incorporates abilities required for many jobs and measures a broader base of abilities than many academic tests.
Values: represents a grouping of needs, the number of needs are fewer than skills
To assess values and needs, they developed the Minnesota Importance Questionnaire (MIQ)
· method of measuring the importance of needs that emerge from experience
· 20 need scales characterize important work-related concepts
· 6 values derived from 20 needs, 3 negatively correlated pairs
Achievement (making use of one’s abilities and having a sense of accomplishment) vs. comfort (non-stressful work environment)
status (how one is perceived by others and the recognition one gets) vs. altruism (how one can help or work with others)
safety (orderliness and predictability) vs. autonomy (opportunity to work on their own)
Personality Styles: concerned with how an individual with particular abilities and values interacts with his or her work situation
Four characteristics of personality style:
_ celerity: speed with which one approaches tasks
_ pace: effort one spends in working
_ rhythm: the pattern of one’s effort or pace
_ endurance: how long one is likely to continue working on a task
Interests: derived from values and abilities in that they are an expression of ability-value relationships. Work values are better indicators of job satisfaction than interests, according to researchers.
STEP 2 – MEASURING THE REQUIREMENTS AND CONDITIONS OF OCCUPATIONS
There are methods to measure the abilities and values needed for many occupations. This is done by averaging scores for people in various occupations on the GATB and MIQ.
Ability Patterns: important abilities that are required for a great variety of jobs.
Set of GATB ability requirements was developed for each occupation and cutoff scores were selected. Those scoring above this cutoff were successful in their jobs. So if a client was taking the GATB, you would compare his score with successful employees and see if they match.
Value Patterns: developed the Minnesota Job Description Questionnaire (MJDQ), which assesses how well an occupation reinforces or meets each of the 20 needs.
Combining Ability and Value Patterns: combined data used to create the Minnesota Occupational Classification System (MOCS)
STEP 3 - MATCHING ABILITIES, VALUES, AND REINFORCERS
When matching values and abilities with the Occupational Ability Patterns and Occupational Reinforcer Patterns, the counselor can use (1) MIQ, (2) GATB, (3) MOCS
Adjustment Style: the degree of fit between person and the environment, how an individual relates to the occupational environment
Four qualities describe this fit:
· flexibility - the ability of a person to tolerate unpleasant or difficult aspects of the job
· activeness – trying to change the environment
· reactiveness – changing themselves
· perseverance – how long a person can take adverse conditions before changing jobs
JOB ADJUSTMENT COUNSELING
Work adjustment theory can be used to conceptualize the types of problems that someone can have in adjusting to a job (i.e. their skills may not be fully developed for the job or may not be able to fully develop them, values and needs are not met on the job, does not understand the reinforcer patterns of the work involved, or person could be having problems at home which affect work).
Counselor assesses client’s work personality (MIQ, GATB) and working environment.
Assess discrepancies between the individual’s values and abilities and the ability patterns and reinforcer patterns of the job.
Make changes in the work itself so that reinforcer patterns are altered.
ADJUSTMENT TO RETIREMENT
Try to find work in a non-work environment that has the same abilities and reinforcers as their previous job.
NEW DEVELOPMENTS
Work adjustment theory is applied to young, gifted adolescents
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS - MIQ, MJDQ, MSQ (MINNESOTA
SATISFACTION QUESTIONNAIRE), MSS (MINNESOTA SATISFACTION SCALES)
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION - USE OF THE MINNESOTA OCCUPATIONAL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
APPLYING THE THEORY TO WOMEN AND CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
Focus on large differences within groups rather than small differences existing between groups.
COUNSELOR ISSUES: Counselor and client are reinforcers for each other.
Trait and Factor Theory
Trait – a characteristic of an individual that can be measured through assessment
Factor – a characteristic required for successful job performance
Trait and factor – the assessment of characteristics of the person and the job
Based on the work of Frank Parsons, Choosing a Vocation
STEP 1 - GAINING SELF-UNDERSTANDING
Interviews and discussions, as well as tests and inventories are used, especially pertaining to interests, aptitude, achievement, values, and personality.
Aptitude
Reveals a person’s probable future level of ability to perform a task (achievement – reveals how much a person has learned in the past, ability – reveals a person’s present ability to perform a task, measures maximum performance)
Examples of aptitude tests: SAT, ACT, the Differential Aptitude Test (DAT), the US Employment Services General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB), and the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB).
Achievement:
Broad range of events that people participate in and accomplish during their lifetime.
Three types of achievement:
Academic accomplishment – measured most often by grades, but also by honors and specific test scores.
Work accomplishments – tasks completed, supervisor ratings
Tests of achievement for certification or entry into an occupation
Achievement can be measured quantitatively through tests that are used for licensure, certification, or entry into a particular field or profession.
Interests:
Has become the most important trait used in occupational selection.
Minimal overlap between interests and abilities, meaning some people may like things they can’t do well, or some may be good at activities they don’t like.
Interest inventories have scales for specific occupations.
Examples of interest inventories: Kuder DD, SII
Examples of general interest inventories: Kuder Career Search (KCS), SII Basic Interest Scale, California Occupational Preference Survey (COPS)
Values
Important, but difficult concept to measure. For career counseling, two types of values are considered: general values (Study of Values [SV]) and work-related values (Values Scale [VS]).
Personality:
Two inventories: California Psychological Inventory (CPI) – common sense approach and Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF) – statistical approach, bipolar method
Counselor matches the profile of a client with an appropriate occupational pattern
Most difficult to use because of the complexity of the variables involved and their abstraction
STEP 2 - OBTAINING KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE WORLD OF WORK
Three aspects of occupational information: type of information (i.e. description of job, working conditions, salary), classification, and the trait and factor requirements for each occupation that one is seriously considering (aptitude, achievement, interest, value, and personality traits)
Types of Occupational Information
Occupational Outlook Handbook
National Career Development Association Guidelines
Classification Systems
A way to organize information
Examples:
· 3 different government classification systems
· Holland’s classification of occupations
· Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT)
9 digit code: first digit identifies one of 9 broad categories, 2nd digit breaks up occupations into 82 divisions, 3rd divides occupation into 559 groups, 4th deals with how the person deals with data, 5th how a person deals with people, 6th how a person deals with things, 7th, 8th, 9th indicate the alphabetical order of the occupational titles that have the same 6-digit code.
· O*NET (Occupational Information Network) – computer-based
Common characteristics: worker characteristics, worker requirements, experience requirements, occupational requirements, occupation-specific requirements, occupational characteristics
· Enhanced Guide for Occupational Exploration (GOE) - another government classification system
· Standard Occupational Classification Manual - another government classification system
Trait and Factor Requirements
STEP 3 - INTEGRATING INFORMATION ABOUT ONESELF AND THE WORLD OF WORK
The manuals that accompany many inventories indicate which occupations match specific patterns of scores.
Computer guidance systems (not only tests and inventories) can be used in trait and factor theory.
SIGI PLUS
DISCOVER
How the Counselor Can Help: Helping Skills, Assessment, Occupational Information
APPLYING THE THEORY TO CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Factor – a characteristic required for successful job performance
Trait and factor – the assessment of characteristics of the person and the job
Based on the work of Frank Parsons, Choosing a Vocation
STEP 1 - GAINING SELF-UNDERSTANDING
Interviews and discussions, as well as tests and inventories are used, especially pertaining to interests, aptitude, achievement, values, and personality.
Aptitude
Reveals a person’s probable future level of ability to perform a task (achievement – reveals how much a person has learned in the past, ability – reveals a person’s present ability to perform a task, measures maximum performance)
Examples of aptitude tests: SAT, ACT, the Differential Aptitude Test (DAT), the US Employment Services General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB), and the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB).
Achievement:
Broad range of events that people participate in and accomplish during their lifetime.
Three types of achievement:
Academic accomplishment – measured most often by grades, but also by honors and specific test scores.
Work accomplishments – tasks completed, supervisor ratings
Tests of achievement for certification or entry into an occupation
Achievement can be measured quantitatively through tests that are used for licensure, certification, or entry into a particular field or profession.
Interests:
Has become the most important trait used in occupational selection.
Minimal overlap between interests and abilities, meaning some people may like things they can’t do well, or some may be good at activities they don’t like.
Interest inventories have scales for specific occupations.
Examples of interest inventories: Kuder DD, SII
Examples of general interest inventories: Kuder Career Search (KCS), SII Basic Interest Scale, California Occupational Preference Survey (COPS)
Values
Important, but difficult concept to measure. For career counseling, two types of values are considered: general values (Study of Values [SV]) and work-related values (Values Scale [VS]).
Personality:
Two inventories: California Psychological Inventory (CPI) – common sense approach and Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF) – statistical approach, bipolar method
Counselor matches the profile of a client with an appropriate occupational pattern
Most difficult to use because of the complexity of the variables involved and their abstraction
STEP 2 - OBTAINING KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE WORLD OF WORK
Three aspects of occupational information: type of information (i.e. description of job, working conditions, salary), classification, and the trait and factor requirements for each occupation that one is seriously considering (aptitude, achievement, interest, value, and personality traits)
Types of Occupational Information
Occupational Outlook Handbook
National Career Development Association Guidelines
Classification Systems
A way to organize information
Examples:
· 3 different government classification systems
· Holland’s classification of occupations
· Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT)
9 digit code: first digit identifies one of 9 broad categories, 2nd digit breaks up occupations into 82 divisions, 3rd divides occupation into 559 groups, 4th deals with how the person deals with data, 5th how a person deals with people, 6th how a person deals with things, 7th, 8th, 9th indicate the alphabetical order of the occupational titles that have the same 6-digit code.
· O*NET (Occupational Information Network) – computer-based
Common characteristics: worker characteristics, worker requirements, experience requirements, occupational requirements, occupation-specific requirements, occupational characteristics
· Enhanced Guide for Occupational Exploration (GOE) - another government classification system
· Standard Occupational Classification Manual - another government classification system
Trait and Factor Requirements
STEP 3 - INTEGRATING INFORMATION ABOUT ONESELF AND THE WORLD OF WORK
The manuals that accompany many inventories indicate which occupations match specific patterns of scores.
Computer guidance systems (not only tests and inventories) can be used in trait and factor theory.
SIGI PLUS
DISCOVER
How the Counselor Can Help: Helping Skills, Assessment, Occupational Information
APPLYING THE THEORY TO CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
COUNSELOR ISSUES
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