COMBINING THEORIES
Trait and factor theory
General trait and factor theory
Work adjustment theory
Holland’s theory of types
Myers-Briggs type theory
Life-span theory
Super
Ginzberg
Gottfredson
Erikson
Atkinson, et al.
Hopson and Adams’ theory of transition
Career decision-making theory
Krumboltz’s social learning theory
Spiritual approach to career counseling
Cognitive information processing perspective
Does NOT fit into one of the three categories
Constructivist approaches
Relational theories
Social cognitive career theory
Sociological and economic theories of career development
Combining Life-Span Theory with Trait and Factor and Career Decision-Making Theories
Super and trait and factor theory
Childhood
Ginzberg – emphasize development of interests, capacities, and values
Super – development of curiosity, exploration, and information leading to development of interests, accurate time perspective, and a self concept
Gottfredson – orientation to size and power, gender roles, social class variables, and self awareness
Trait and factor theory and career decision making theories usually not appropriate in childhood
Early Adolescence
Convergence of life-span theory and other theories becomes murky
Super – career maturity, career planning, career exploration, decision making, world-of-work information, and knowledge of preferred occupation
Erikson, Marica, Vondracek – vocational readiness
Trait and factor theory and career decision making are useful
Late Adolescence and Adulthood
Trait and factor theories – Holland
Work adjustment can be used, but rarely is
Cognitive information processing and Krumboltz can be used
Adult Career Development
Can use most theories except early childhood
Combining Trait and Factor Theories
Can use different trait and factor theories at once
Combining Career Decision-Making Theories
Career decision making theories tend to describe the same process, so would NOT use more than one at a time
The Counselor’s Choice – It’s personal, there is no one way that is better than another
NONCOUNSELING APPLICATIONS OF THEORIES
Screening Methods
Tests or inventories that screen for clients who will benefit from counseling most
Examples: Career Development Inventory; Holland’s Self Directed Search
Paper-and-Pencil Methods
Holland’s Self-Directed Search used with The Occupations Finder and You and Your Career
Computerized Guidance Systems
Adjunct to counseling, interactive
DISCOVER and SIGI PLUS (values emphasized) - follow trait and factor method
Internet
Great variety of career information
Assessment inventories (Appendix B)
Career information (Appendix C)
_ Career counseling organizations
_ Education and internships
_ Job postings
_ Occupations
Ethical issues - Confidentiality and following professional standards
SPECIAL COUNSELING ISSUES
Group Career Counseling
Concepts and materials provided can usually be applied to most group settings
Primary use is to impart information, also to help with exploration and self-efficacy
Not found in individual counseling - motivation from peers, being able to help or be helped by those in similar positions as yourself
Groups can be designed for specific populations
trait and factor theory - select test and inventories - all trait and factor theories can be used
Developmental theory - group by age range - Issues related to Super’s stages
Career decision making - Krumboltz developed the DECIDES group approach.
Cognitive information processing has been applied to career classes
Career Counseling as a Related Issue
When career counseling is NOT the primary concern
Can use Myers-Briggs, work adjustment theory, Super, and Gottfredson for children
Changing Work Settings
The age and ability levels of the clients may determine the type of theory that the counselor chooses
In general, counselors may be less likely to change their theory of counseling when they move from one work setting to another, than to modify the career development theory that they use
Placement Counseling
Many authors have written job search books to help people find a job. Azrin has used a behavioral approach in the development of the “job club”
Holland - different types use different approaches
Myers-Briggs - approach depends on MBTI stage
Super - role salience and stage
Career decision making theory - reinforce job search rather than getting a job
USE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS IN THEORIES
Trait and factor theory rely heavily on tests
Less for life-span theory, even less for spirituality theory
OCCUPATIONAL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT THEORIES
Associated with trait and factor theory
Examples - Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes, DOT, Guide for Occupational Exploration, Occupational Information Network (O*NET)
HOW THEORIES APPLY TO CAREER DEVELOPMENT ISSUES OF WOMEN
Life-span theory addresses issues for women at different developmental stages
Various trait and factor theories address specific issues related to gender
Gottfredson describes gender issues in the career development of children
Sexual harassment is addressed by crisis and other theories
HOW THEORIES APPLY TO CULTURAL DIVERSITY ISSUES IN COUNSELING
Life span theory has studied groups at different developmental stages
Vondracek discusses cultural context of situations
Social cognitive theory focuses on concerns about self-efficacy
Minority development model of Atkinson, Morten, and Sue
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Trait and Factor Theories
Awareness of differences in abilities, interests, values, and personality of client and counselor
Life-Span Theories
Attention to different roles and stages of the client and the counselor
Career Decision-Making Theories
Krumboltz - counseling skills should match needs of client
Spiritual approach - client and counselor’s subjective experience may differ greatly
Cognitive information processing theory - structure of counseling should not interfere with discussion of atypical issues.
Sociological and Economic Approaches
Focuses on inequalities that exist for women and culturally diverse populationsSociological and economic research provides a means for the counselor to assess her own biases
Thursday, November 20, 2008
THE LABOR MARKET: SOCIOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVES
Models or theories have been developed that point out inequities or obstacles in the labor market that may affect the earnings or success of different individuals.
THE UNITED STATES LABOR MARKET
Labor market – serves to fulfill the needs of citizens of a state, a nation, and/or the world.
Job availability is related to the demand of individuals for food, shelter, clothing, etc.
Professional specialties are the group most likely to increase in demand for jobs.
Growth – the need for new workers to meet demands of an occupation beyond the needs that are met by replacing existing workers
Workers leave occupations for a variety of reasons.
Service occupations are projected to have the largest number of openings
A large number of jobs in US do not require a college education.
The amount of education is closely related to income¼, economic value of education.
SOCIOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC APPROACHES
Emphasizes the study of social organizations (psychology (focuses on individuals, not organizations)
Sociology – study the development, organization, and operation of human society. Examine family, cultural, and other social factors that predict career choice as well as variables such as unemployment and pay distributions by industry. Studies the patterns of customs, interactions, and professional development of hundreds or illegal and legal occupations. Ability, interests, and values, and career decision making are studied to predict labor market or work behavior (also for economists)
Economics – study the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Investigate factors such as unemployment, pay distribution by industry, job title, gender, and race (which are related to a person’s career development)
YOUTH EMPLOYMENT
Not a homogenous group, ages 15-24 often used
Girls only make 70-75% of what boys make, less disparity in 12th grade
Differences in motivation for work
Quality of employment is low
Part time work has positive and negative effects on future employment
Students may develop a sense of autonomy
Youth more likely to be underemployed than older workers
THE EFFECT OF THE WORK ENVIRONMENT ON THE INDIVIDUAL
Having an unchallenging job may lead to a loss of intellectual skills
Substantive complexity – the degree to which the work requires thought and independent judgment
Substantive complexity increases intellectual functioning of employees
STATUS ATTAINMENT THEORY
The role of achievement and social status influences occupational selection
Focused on intergenerational change (vertical mobility) and predicting an individual’s occupation from the father’s job.
Found that they could predict the socioeconomic status level of one’s first job from father’s occupation and education
Family status includes father’s job, socioeconomic status, income, education.
Mother’s job is a factor of increasing importance
Culture affects status attainment
HUMAN CAPITAL THEORY
Individuals invest in their own education and training so that they will receive increased life-time earnings
Career earnings – function of ability, education and training, combined with the effort to produce effectively
Education and appropriate job experience lead to desired income
Individual is seen as a firm or company
Endorsement of trait and factor theory – emphasizes role of interests and abilities in selecting an occupation
Criticism – not just about money
THE STRUCTURE OF THE LABOR MARKET
Disadvantaged and underprivileged groups tend to enter different types of jobs from those who are more privileged
Classifies both firms and labor markets into two basic groups: primary (core) and secondary (peripheral) - basic view
A way of seeing a variety of discontinuous segments in the labor market
Hard to move from lowest sector to a higher sector
WOMEN AND DISCRIMINATION IN THE WORKPLACE
Discrimination leads to lower pay, less advancement, and occupational segregation¼leads to working in jobs less prestigious than men
Four determinants of discrimination:
Taste discrimination – preference not to employ members of a certain group
Monopoly model of discrimination – when an organized group agrees to exclude another group from positions
Error discrimination – employers who do not have discriminatory taste but may underestimate the ability of women to perform the same task as men
Statistical discrimination – when an employer applies generalizations about a group of people to an individual
Women have similar unemployment rates as men but move in and out of the labor force more frequently than men.
Women are in jobs that tend to pay less and have less prestige than men’s jobs.
Gender segretation refers to the difference in distribution of men and women in various occupations; this is illustrated by Table 15.3, p. 397
Men are now entering more jobs in the service sector that have been previously held by women
CULTURALLY DIVERSE INDIVIDUALS AND DISCRIMINATION IN THE WORKPLACE
Unemployment rate for African Americans and Latinos in 2003 was much greater than rates for Caucasians and Asians
Relatively few Hispanics and African Americans in high-skill jobs
African American men have higher unemployment rates because of fewer opportunities for less-educated workers.
When African Americans and Caucasian men have similar résumés, African American men at all educational levels experience discrimination
Some firms inconsistent in applying affirmative action rules
Evidence that African American men tend to work at the lowest sector of the labor market
Ogbu differentiates between involuntary and voluntary minorities who differ in attitude towards workOgbu finds that African Americans perceive a job ceiling
THE UNITED STATES LABOR MARKET
Labor market – serves to fulfill the needs of citizens of a state, a nation, and/or the world.
Job availability is related to the demand of individuals for food, shelter, clothing, etc.
Professional specialties are the group most likely to increase in demand for jobs.
Growth – the need for new workers to meet demands of an occupation beyond the needs that are met by replacing existing workers
Workers leave occupations for a variety of reasons.
Service occupations are projected to have the largest number of openings
A large number of jobs in US do not require a college education.
The amount of education is closely related to income¼, economic value of education.
SOCIOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC APPROACHES
Emphasizes the study of social organizations (psychology (focuses on individuals, not organizations)
Sociology – study the development, organization, and operation of human society. Examine family, cultural, and other social factors that predict career choice as well as variables such as unemployment and pay distributions by industry. Studies the patterns of customs, interactions, and professional development of hundreds or illegal and legal occupations. Ability, interests, and values, and career decision making are studied to predict labor market or work behavior (also for economists)
Economics – study the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Investigate factors such as unemployment, pay distribution by industry, job title, gender, and race (which are related to a person’s career development)
YOUTH EMPLOYMENT
Not a homogenous group, ages 15-24 often used
Girls only make 70-75% of what boys make, less disparity in 12th grade
Differences in motivation for work
Quality of employment is low
Part time work has positive and negative effects on future employment
Students may develop a sense of autonomy
Youth more likely to be underemployed than older workers
THE EFFECT OF THE WORK ENVIRONMENT ON THE INDIVIDUAL
Having an unchallenging job may lead to a loss of intellectual skills
Substantive complexity – the degree to which the work requires thought and independent judgment
Substantive complexity increases intellectual functioning of employees
STATUS ATTAINMENT THEORY
The role of achievement and social status influences occupational selection
Focused on intergenerational change (vertical mobility) and predicting an individual’s occupation from the father’s job.
Found that they could predict the socioeconomic status level of one’s first job from father’s occupation and education
Family status includes father’s job, socioeconomic status, income, education.
Mother’s job is a factor of increasing importance
Culture affects status attainment
HUMAN CAPITAL THEORY
Individuals invest in their own education and training so that they will receive increased life-time earnings
Career earnings – function of ability, education and training, combined with the effort to produce effectively
Education and appropriate job experience lead to desired income
Individual is seen as a firm or company
Endorsement of trait and factor theory – emphasizes role of interests and abilities in selecting an occupation
Criticism – not just about money
THE STRUCTURE OF THE LABOR MARKET
Disadvantaged and underprivileged groups tend to enter different types of jobs from those who are more privileged
Classifies both firms and labor markets into two basic groups: primary (core) and secondary (peripheral) - basic view
A way of seeing a variety of discontinuous segments in the labor market
Hard to move from lowest sector to a higher sector
WOMEN AND DISCRIMINATION IN THE WORKPLACE
Discrimination leads to lower pay, less advancement, and occupational segregation¼leads to working in jobs less prestigious than men
Four determinants of discrimination:
Taste discrimination – preference not to employ members of a certain group
Monopoly model of discrimination – when an organized group agrees to exclude another group from positions
Error discrimination – employers who do not have discriminatory taste but may underestimate the ability of women to perform the same task as men
Statistical discrimination – when an employer applies generalizations about a group of people to an individual
Women have similar unemployment rates as men but move in and out of the labor force more frequently than men.
Women are in jobs that tend to pay less and have less prestige than men’s jobs.
Gender segretation refers to the difference in distribution of men and women in various occupations; this is illustrated by Table 15.3, p. 397
Men are now entering more jobs in the service sector that have been previously held by women
CULTURALLY DIVERSE INDIVIDUALS AND DISCRIMINATION IN THE WORKPLACE
Unemployment rate for African Americans and Latinos in 2003 was much greater than rates for Caucasians and Asians
Relatively few Hispanics and African Americans in high-skill jobs
African American men have higher unemployment rates because of fewer opportunities for less-educated workers.
When African Americans and Caucasian men have similar résumés, African American men at all educational levels experience discrimination
Some firms inconsistent in applying affirmative action rules
Evidence that African American men tend to work at the lowest sector of the labor market
Ogbu differentiates between involuntary and voluntary minorities who differ in attitude towards workOgbu finds that African Americans perceive a job ceiling
CAREER DECISION-MAKING APPROACHES
Two categories of decision making models
Descriptive Theories - describe or explain the choices that an individual makes when deciding on career choices; usually based on adolescent or adult decision making. Example: spiritual approach – life and career are related
Prescriptive Theories - focus on the ideal approach to decision making; originate with psychological decision making theory or observations of cognitive decision making processes
Example: Peterson et al.’s cognitive information processing approach
A SPIRITUAL PERSPECTIVE IN DECISION MAKING
See work as a place where one’s spirit can be nourished and person can develop self
Spirit – an essential principle that gives life to physical being
May or may not include a religious point of view
Lifecareer Theory (Miller-Tiedeman)
Sees each person as his own theory maker
You are not looking for a career, you have one¼life is our career
By trusting inner wisdom that comes from your intellectual ability, previous experiences, and intuition into past experiences, you can experience your career
Lifecareer is the dynamic lived-in-the-moment process defined by each person in individual moments
The client decides what works and what doesn’t, not the counselor
Personal and Common Realities
Reality concerns the awareness of one’s career decision-making
Personal reality - an individual’s sense of what is right
Common reality - what others say the individual should do
Spirituality
When individuals experience the wholeness of living; spirituality develops
Seven themes that people can use to better understand their lives and the career decisions that are a part of their lives
Change - when change occurs by chance, it is called synchronocity; can be internal or external; many feelings and emotions
Balance - seek balance; it is natural to maintain balance between work, play, and other activities
Energy - needed in order to bring about change and balance in one’s life; many sources of energy (from others, from self, etc.)
Community - 3 types: (1) communities of companionship – immediate and extended family, close friends, (2) communities of culture – neighbors, classmates, coworkers, (3) cosmic community – those which concern large ideas, such as environment, poor, etc.
Calling - finding one’s ideal work
Harmony - finding the work that will bring about a true sense of appreciation and understanding
Unity - to believe in unity is to trust the universe
A Spiritual Approach to Career Counseling
May seem vague and unclear
Suggestions that can be used by counselors when using Lifecareer Theory
Let client know their career is their life
Client knows what’s working and what’s not; emphasize personal reality
Clients should learn from their experiences and to assess their experiences
Do not let tests and inventories interfere with students’ exploration of educational or occupational opportunities
Help clients set intentions without placing restrictions on them
Be enthusiastic
Help clients become more self-aware
A Holistic Approach to Life Planning - Hansen
Task 1: Finding Work that Needs Doing in a Changing Global Context
Task 2: Weaving our Lives into a Meaningful Whole
Task 3: Connecting Family and Work
Task 4: Valuing Pluralism in Individuality
Task 5: Managing Personal Transitions and Organizational Change
Task 6: Exploring Spirituality and Life Purpose
A COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH
A cognitive approach to choosing careers and making career decisions
Peterson et al. – tried to help individuals understand the way that they think and how that influences their career decision making
Assumptions of a Cognitive Information Processing Approach
Prescriptive point of view - prescribe or suggest ways that individuals can think about career decision making that will improve their ability to make good career decisions
Four assumptions:
1. Both affect and cognitive processing are important components of career decision making.
2. Individuals not only need to know about themselves and the world of work, but also information about thinking and how it affects decision making.
3. Information about self and the world of work is constantly changing.
4. By improving one’s information processing capabilities, clients can improve their career problem-solving abilities.
The Pyramid of Information Processing
Based on Sternberg’s approach to understanding human intelligence; Three basic components: knowledge domain (knowing oneself and knowing about world of work), decision-making skills domain (learn how to make decisions), and the executive processing domain (become aware of how their thoughts influence their decisions)
Self-Knowledge - to learn about themselves, people must both interpret events and reconstruct them; comes from information about previous school performance, previous work, etc.
Occupational Knowledge - people acquire information about the educational system and occupations throughout their lives
Decision-Making Skills - the capabilities that enable people to process information about themselves and occupations is referred to as generic information processing skills; these skills are Also known as CASVE:
Communication – when people get input from within themselves or from the environment, the communication process begins
Analysis – examining the self-knowledge and occupational knowledge domain
Synthesis – when information is analyzed, then people can pursue courses of action; synthesizing information through elaborating or crystallizing what they have analyzed
Valuing – the client evaluates or values possible actions or career directions
Execution – once choices have been evaluated or have undergone the valuing process, then a plan or strategy can be formulated to implement the choice
The Executive Processing Domain – top section of pyramid; refers to higher order functions
Three major ways of decision making
Self-Talk - internal messages that we give ourselves about career choice and other issues; can be positive or negative
Self-Awareness - individuals can be more effective problem solvers when they are aware of what they are doing and why they are doing it
Monitoring and Control - people can monitor the way in which they go through the CASVE process and control how much time they give to each of these stages or phases
Career Decision Making
Decided
Undecided
Being reluctant to acknowledge it
The Career Thoughts Inventory
Three scales:
Decision-Making Confusion - indicates the difficulty that individuals have in initiating or sustaining career decision making; relates to difficulties involved in CAS steps of CASVE
External Conflict - difficulty in balancing one’s own views of information about self and occupations with the views of others; relates to V in CASVE
Commitment Anxiety - fear or anxiety that comes with the difficulty in implementing a career choice and addressing problems in moving from the valuing stage to the execution stage
Career Thoughts Inventory Workbook – includes five sections
Seven-Step Service Delivery Sequence
Seven-step approach to cognitive information processing
Represents a structured model of career counseling that is more organized than most
1. Initial Interview – information is gathered about client’s career problem; rapport; CASVE explained
2. Preliminary Assessment – screening instrument (e.g. Career Thoughts Inventory) is given and readiness for counseling is assessed.
3. Define Problem and Analyze Causes – problem is clarified and defined so that goals can be developed
4. Formulate Goals – together form goals; Goals become basis for Individual Learning Plan (ILP)
5. Develop Individual Learning Plan – together develop an ILP that lists the activities that are to be completed by the client in order to achieve her goals
6. Execute Individual Learning Plan – with counselor’s help, clients follow through on the ILP which is integrated with the CASVE cycle
7. Summarize Review and Generalization – after client has completed ILP, together discuss progress towards reaching goals
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Spiritual approach - Not only use libraries but use job experience and discussions with others
Cognitive Information Processing Theory - Occupational information is at the base of the pyramid of information processing
Analysis and synthesis refers to weighing occupational information
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
Spirituality approach - clients rely on their own view of assessment results; counselors use non-technical terms to describe limits of assessment
Cognitive Information Processing Theory - Find assessment to be helpful (self-knowledge domain)
Career Thoughts Inventory can be used as a measure of readiness for career decision making
APPLYING THE THEORIES TO WOMEN AND CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
Spiritual approach - awareness of wide cultural differences in spiritual view of clients
Attend to not letting societal norms pressure client
Cognitive Information Processing Theory - CASVE is a Western or scientific point of view
Attend to prejudice and stereotyping
Cultural group membership is an opportunity to networking and mentoring
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Spiritual approach - Focus on internal decision-making process
Be aware of different approach to decision-making fo counselor and client
Avoid “shoulds”, attend to client’s personal reality
Cognitive Information Processing Theory
Avoid too much structure
Consider seven step delivery model Decide whether or not to assess career readiness
Descriptive Theories - describe or explain the choices that an individual makes when deciding on career choices; usually based on adolescent or adult decision making. Example: spiritual approach – life and career are related
Prescriptive Theories - focus on the ideal approach to decision making; originate with psychological decision making theory or observations of cognitive decision making processes
Example: Peterson et al.’s cognitive information processing approach
A SPIRITUAL PERSPECTIVE IN DECISION MAKING
See work as a place where one’s spirit can be nourished and person can develop self
Spirit – an essential principle that gives life to physical being
May or may not include a religious point of view
Lifecareer Theory (Miller-Tiedeman)
Sees each person as his own theory maker
You are not looking for a career, you have one¼life is our career
By trusting inner wisdom that comes from your intellectual ability, previous experiences, and intuition into past experiences, you can experience your career
Lifecareer is the dynamic lived-in-the-moment process defined by each person in individual moments
The client decides what works and what doesn’t, not the counselor
Personal and Common Realities
Reality concerns the awareness of one’s career decision-making
Personal reality - an individual’s sense of what is right
Common reality - what others say the individual should do
Spirituality
When individuals experience the wholeness of living; spirituality develops
Seven themes that people can use to better understand their lives and the career decisions that are a part of their lives
Change - when change occurs by chance, it is called synchronocity; can be internal or external; many feelings and emotions
Balance - seek balance; it is natural to maintain balance between work, play, and other activities
Energy - needed in order to bring about change and balance in one’s life; many sources of energy (from others, from self, etc.)
Community - 3 types: (1) communities of companionship – immediate and extended family, close friends, (2) communities of culture – neighbors, classmates, coworkers, (3) cosmic community – those which concern large ideas, such as environment, poor, etc.
Calling - finding one’s ideal work
Harmony - finding the work that will bring about a true sense of appreciation and understanding
Unity - to believe in unity is to trust the universe
A Spiritual Approach to Career Counseling
May seem vague and unclear
Suggestions that can be used by counselors when using Lifecareer Theory
Let client know their career is their life
Client knows what’s working and what’s not; emphasize personal reality
Clients should learn from their experiences and to assess their experiences
Do not let tests and inventories interfere with students’ exploration of educational or occupational opportunities
Help clients set intentions without placing restrictions on them
Be enthusiastic
Help clients become more self-aware
A Holistic Approach to Life Planning - Hansen
Task 1: Finding Work that Needs Doing in a Changing Global Context
Task 2: Weaving our Lives into a Meaningful Whole
Task 3: Connecting Family and Work
Task 4: Valuing Pluralism in Individuality
Task 5: Managing Personal Transitions and Organizational Change
Task 6: Exploring Spirituality and Life Purpose
A COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH
A cognitive approach to choosing careers and making career decisions
Peterson et al. – tried to help individuals understand the way that they think and how that influences their career decision making
Assumptions of a Cognitive Information Processing Approach
Prescriptive point of view - prescribe or suggest ways that individuals can think about career decision making that will improve their ability to make good career decisions
Four assumptions:
1. Both affect and cognitive processing are important components of career decision making.
2. Individuals not only need to know about themselves and the world of work, but also information about thinking and how it affects decision making.
3. Information about self and the world of work is constantly changing.
4. By improving one’s information processing capabilities, clients can improve their career problem-solving abilities.
The Pyramid of Information Processing
Based on Sternberg’s approach to understanding human intelligence; Three basic components: knowledge domain (knowing oneself and knowing about world of work), decision-making skills domain (learn how to make decisions), and the executive processing domain (become aware of how their thoughts influence their decisions)
Self-Knowledge - to learn about themselves, people must both interpret events and reconstruct them; comes from information about previous school performance, previous work, etc.
Occupational Knowledge - people acquire information about the educational system and occupations throughout their lives
Decision-Making Skills - the capabilities that enable people to process information about themselves and occupations is referred to as generic information processing skills; these skills are Also known as CASVE:
Communication – when people get input from within themselves or from the environment, the communication process begins
Analysis – examining the self-knowledge and occupational knowledge domain
Synthesis – when information is analyzed, then people can pursue courses of action; synthesizing information through elaborating or crystallizing what they have analyzed
Valuing – the client evaluates or values possible actions or career directions
Execution – once choices have been evaluated or have undergone the valuing process, then a plan or strategy can be formulated to implement the choice
The Executive Processing Domain – top section of pyramid; refers to higher order functions
Three major ways of decision making
Self-Talk - internal messages that we give ourselves about career choice and other issues; can be positive or negative
Self-Awareness - individuals can be more effective problem solvers when they are aware of what they are doing and why they are doing it
Monitoring and Control - people can monitor the way in which they go through the CASVE process and control how much time they give to each of these stages or phases
Career Decision Making
Decided
Undecided
Being reluctant to acknowledge it
The Career Thoughts Inventory
Three scales:
Decision-Making Confusion - indicates the difficulty that individuals have in initiating or sustaining career decision making; relates to difficulties involved in CAS steps of CASVE
External Conflict - difficulty in balancing one’s own views of information about self and occupations with the views of others; relates to V in CASVE
Commitment Anxiety - fear or anxiety that comes with the difficulty in implementing a career choice and addressing problems in moving from the valuing stage to the execution stage
Career Thoughts Inventory Workbook – includes five sections
Seven-Step Service Delivery Sequence
Seven-step approach to cognitive information processing
Represents a structured model of career counseling that is more organized than most
1. Initial Interview – information is gathered about client’s career problem; rapport; CASVE explained
2. Preliminary Assessment – screening instrument (e.g. Career Thoughts Inventory) is given and readiness for counseling is assessed.
3. Define Problem and Analyze Causes – problem is clarified and defined so that goals can be developed
4. Formulate Goals – together form goals; Goals become basis for Individual Learning Plan (ILP)
5. Develop Individual Learning Plan – together develop an ILP that lists the activities that are to be completed by the client in order to achieve her goals
6. Execute Individual Learning Plan – with counselor’s help, clients follow through on the ILP which is integrated with the CASVE cycle
7. Summarize Review and Generalization – after client has completed ILP, together discuss progress towards reaching goals
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Spiritual approach - Not only use libraries but use job experience and discussions with others
Cognitive Information Processing Theory - Occupational information is at the base of the pyramid of information processing
Analysis and synthesis refers to weighing occupational information
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
Spirituality approach - clients rely on their own view of assessment results; counselors use non-technical terms to describe limits of assessment
Cognitive Information Processing Theory - Find assessment to be helpful (self-knowledge domain)
Career Thoughts Inventory can be used as a measure of readiness for career decision making
APPLYING THE THEORIES TO WOMEN AND CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
Spiritual approach - awareness of wide cultural differences in spiritual view of clients
Attend to not letting societal norms pressure client
Cognitive Information Processing Theory - CASVE is a Western or scientific point of view
Attend to prejudice and stereotyping
Cultural group membership is an opportunity to networking and mentoring
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Spiritual approach - Focus on internal decision-making process
Be aware of different approach to decision-making fo counselor and client
Avoid “shoulds”, attend to client’s personal reality
Cognitive Information Processing Theory
Avoid too much structure
Consider seven step delivery model Decide whether or not to assess career readiness
SOCIAL COGNITIVE CAREER THEORY
Based on Bandura’s social learning theory and triadic reciprocal interaction system
Similarities to Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory
_ Both emphasize triadic reciprocal interaction system (focusing on environment, personal factors, and behaviors)
_ Thoughts and feelings are a part of career decision-making
Dissimilarities
_ Social Cognitive Career Theory focuses on cognitive processes (such as self-efficacy) that regulate and moderate actions
_ Krumboltz focuses on learning behaviors related to a variety of career concerns
_ Social Cognitive Career Theory is more specific and complex
_ Social Cognitive Career Theory emphasizes individuals’ belief systems that affect behaviors rather than concentrate on the behaviors themselves
_ Based on recent and plentiful research
SELF-EFFICACY
People’s judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances
People with low self-efficacy cannot perform as well on a task
Changing set of beliefs about oneself that varies, depending on the context of the situation
Factors include nature of the task, the people and surroundings that people have contact with, and success on similar tasks
Estimates the ability to accomplish something
OUTCOME EXPECTATIONS
When individuals estimate what the probability of an outcome would be
Refers to what may happen
Includes the anticipation of physical, social, and self-evaluative outcomes
GOALS
Set goals that help to organize their behavior and to guide their actions over various periods of time
Goals are self-motivating and the satisfaction with meeting goals is highly significant
CONTEXTUAL FACTORS: BARRIERS AND SUPPORTS
Background contextual factors - occur as individuals learn about and interact with their culture
Contextal influences proximal to choice behaviors (also called proximal influences - current and directly related to career choice concerns)
Contextual factors may be supports or barriers
THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE MODEL OF CAREER CHOICE
Complex; involves interactions between self-efficacy, outcome expectations, goals, choice, outcome, and environmental factors
Circular - concepts indirectly or directly affect each other and continue to do so throughout most of the life span.
Self-efficacy and Outcome Expectations lead to Interests
- Interests that are likely to persist across time arise from activities that people feel they are effective in completing and in succeeding in.
Interest lead to Choice Goals
- People’s interests affect their intent to do certain activities and their goals that relate to activities.
Goals lead to Choice Actions
- The goals that individuals choose affect the actions that they take to achieve the goals
Choice Actions lead to Performance Outcomes
- The actions that people take greatly affect the outcome of their performance
Performance Outcomes lead to Learning Experiences lead to Self-Efficacy/Outcome Expectations
Outcome Expectations lead to Choice Goals
Self-Efficacy affect (Interests), (Choice Actions), (Performance Outcomes)
- One’s belief in oneself is a major force that directly affects one’s career goals, choice actions, and performance outcomes
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Non-biased, accurate, career information important for all people
Information helps individuals develop their own abilities and make good career choices
Education helps individuals increase skill levels and sense of self-efficacy
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
Assessment information helpful to clients to use in making career decisions
Counselor uses assessment information to support clients’ self-efficacy beliefs
Career Decision Self-Efficacy Scale is used to measure aspects of career decision self-efficacy
APPLYING SOCIAL COGNITIVE CAREER THEORY TO WOMEN
Studies show occupational self-efficacy predicts interests and career choice
Women scored lower on occupational self-efficacy for non-traditional occupations and higher for traditionally female occupations
Women see more barriers to occupational success than men.
APPLYING SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY TO CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
Recent research studies barriers to occupational attainment experienced by diverse cultural groups.
Support from the theory with Japanese, Native Americans, Mexican Americans, African Americans, and Asian Americans
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Important for counselors to be aware of their own social biases.
Counselors should be aware of types of barriers experienced by culturally diverse populations.
Counselors should be aware of differences between clients’ outcome expectations and the counselors’ expectations for clients.
Similarly, clients should be aware of differences between client’s goals for themselves and counselor goals for clients.
Similarities to Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory
_ Both emphasize triadic reciprocal interaction system (focusing on environment, personal factors, and behaviors)
_ Thoughts and feelings are a part of career decision-making
Dissimilarities
_ Social Cognitive Career Theory focuses on cognitive processes (such as self-efficacy) that regulate and moderate actions
_ Krumboltz focuses on learning behaviors related to a variety of career concerns
_ Social Cognitive Career Theory is more specific and complex
_ Social Cognitive Career Theory emphasizes individuals’ belief systems that affect behaviors rather than concentrate on the behaviors themselves
_ Based on recent and plentiful research
SELF-EFFICACY
People’s judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances
People with low self-efficacy cannot perform as well on a task
Changing set of beliefs about oneself that varies, depending on the context of the situation
Factors include nature of the task, the people and surroundings that people have contact with, and success on similar tasks
Estimates the ability to accomplish something
OUTCOME EXPECTATIONS
When individuals estimate what the probability of an outcome would be
Refers to what may happen
Includes the anticipation of physical, social, and self-evaluative outcomes
GOALS
Set goals that help to organize their behavior and to guide their actions over various periods of time
Goals are self-motivating and the satisfaction with meeting goals is highly significant
CONTEXTUAL FACTORS: BARRIERS AND SUPPORTS
Background contextual factors - occur as individuals learn about and interact with their culture
Contextal influences proximal to choice behaviors (also called proximal influences - current and directly related to career choice concerns)
Contextual factors may be supports or barriers
THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE MODEL OF CAREER CHOICE
Complex; involves interactions between self-efficacy, outcome expectations, goals, choice, outcome, and environmental factors
Circular - concepts indirectly or directly affect each other and continue to do so throughout most of the life span.
Self-efficacy and Outcome Expectations lead to Interests
- Interests that are likely to persist across time arise from activities that people feel they are effective in completing and in succeeding in.
Interest lead to Choice Goals
- People’s interests affect their intent to do certain activities and their goals that relate to activities.
Goals lead to Choice Actions
- The goals that individuals choose affect the actions that they take to achieve the goals
Choice Actions lead to Performance Outcomes
- The actions that people take greatly affect the outcome of their performance
Performance Outcomes lead to Learning Experiences lead to Self-Efficacy/Outcome Expectations
Outcome Expectations lead to Choice Goals
Self-Efficacy affect (Interests), (Choice Actions), (Performance Outcomes)
- One’s belief in oneself is a major force that directly affects one’s career goals, choice actions, and performance outcomes
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Non-biased, accurate, career information important for all people
Information helps individuals develop their own abilities and make good career choices
Education helps individuals increase skill levels and sense of self-efficacy
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
Assessment information helpful to clients to use in making career decisions
Counselor uses assessment information to support clients’ self-efficacy beliefs
Career Decision Self-Efficacy Scale is used to measure aspects of career decision self-efficacy
APPLYING SOCIAL COGNITIVE CAREER THEORY TO WOMEN
Studies show occupational self-efficacy predicts interests and career choice
Women scored lower on occupational self-efficacy for non-traditional occupations and higher for traditionally female occupations
Women see more barriers to occupational success than men.
APPLYING SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY TO CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
Recent research studies barriers to occupational attainment experienced by diverse cultural groups.
Support from the theory with Japanese, Native Americans, Mexican Americans, African Americans, and Asian Americans
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Important for counselors to be aware of their own social biases.
Counselors should be aware of types of barriers experienced by culturally diverse populations.
Counselors should be aware of differences between clients’ outcome expectations and the counselors’ expectations for clients.
Similarly, clients should be aware of differences between client’s goals for themselves and counselor goals for clients.
KRUMBOLTZ’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Bandura’s reinforcement theory and observational learning
Individuals’ personalities come more from their learning experiences than from their genetics
Triadic reciprocal interaction system – interaction of the environment, personal factors (memories, beliefs, preferences, and self-perceptions), and actual behavior.
Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory shows how individuals make career decisions that emphasizes the importance of behavior (action) and cognitions (knowing or thinking) in making career decisions, teaching clients career decision techniques and how to use them and examines four basic factors to understand why people choose the work they do as well as other occupationally related decisions.
GENETIC ENDOWMENT
Those aspects of the individual that are inherited or innate rather than learned such as physical appearance, predisposition to illnesses.
Some people are born with special abilities in the arts, writing, music, etc.
The greater an individual’s innate genetic abilities, the more likely she is to respond to learning and teaching.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AND EVENTS
Outside the control of the individual
Social, cultural, political, and economic considerations
Also, climate and geography
Social Factors
Changes in society have had a great impact on available career options
Educational Conditions
The availability of education is influenced by both social and personal factors
One’s school system and the effect of teachers are also significant
Occupational Conditions
Little control over number and nature of job opportunities
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
Career preferences are a result of one’s prior learning experiences
Each person’s learning experience is unique
Two basic types of learning experiences:
Instrumental Learning Experiences (H)
Three Components
Antecedents – refers to almost any type of condition; people respond to antecedents with behavior
Behaviors – may be obvious or subtle, may have impact on others
Consequences – may be obvious or subtle
Example: if someone gets an A on an exam, she will be more likely to continue studying in that field than if she does poorly
Associative Learning Experiences (O)
When an individual pairs a situation that was previously neutral with one that is positive or negative, an associative learning experience occurs
TASK APPROACH SKILLS
Understanding how people approach tasks
Task-approach skills – goal setting, values clarification, generating alternatives, obtaining occupational information ¼thoughts and beliefs arise from these
Interactions among genetic endowment, environmental conditions, and learning experiences lead to skills in doing a variety of tasks
How someone approaches a task depends on previous experience and influences the outcome of the task
CLIENT COGNITIVE AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS
Self-Observation Generalizations about Abilities
_ Based on prior experiences and information individuals have acquired about themselves
_ Making accurate generalizations about themselves may be difficult; may under- or overstate their abilities
_ Accuracy of generalizations is related to comparing to others
Self-Observation Generalizations about Interests
_ Generalizations about what you like and don’t like
_ Interests can be very general or very specific
_ Interest inventories are helpful
Self-Observation Generalizations about Values
_ People make judgments about the desirability of certain behaviors or events
_ From these judgments, people develop personal and work values
Generalizations about the World
_ Besides themselves, people make generalizations about the world in which they live and the people around them
_ The purpose of occupational information and experience is to provide an opportunity to make generalizations about the world
Task-Approach Skills Used in Career Decision Making - Skills learned from a wide variety of tasks
COUNSELOR BEHAVIORAL STRATEGIES
Reinforcement
_ Most important technique, with the broadest use, applies to all phases of career counseling
_ Positive reinforcement increases the occurrence of a response
_ Positive reinforcement in terms of verbal praise is important
Role Models
_ Valuable associative learning experience
_ Counselors can be role models or provide their clients role models
Role Playing
_ Examples: information-seeking interview, job interview
Simulation
_ Doing some of the tasks that an individual in a particular occupation must perform; client can simulate a career experience
COGNITIVE STRATEGIES FOR COUNSELING
Goal Clarification
_ Clear and identifiable goals, restate goals
Counter a Troublesome Belief
_ Reframing – method of dealing with troublesome beliefs
Look for Inconsistencies between Words and Actions
Cognitive Rehearsal
_ Practicing or rehearsing statements that are positive, which may replace negative thoughts they may have about themselves
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY GOALS FOR CAREER COUNSELING
Emphasis on learning
Facilitate the learning of skills, interests, beliefs, values, work habits, and personal qualities that enable clients to create a satisfying life within a constantly changing work environment, learning about self and the environment
Three criteria that influence goals of career counseling
_ People need to expand their capabilities and interests, not base decisions on existing characteristics only
_ People need to prepare for changing work tasks, not assume that occupations will remain stable
_ People need to be empowered to take action, not merely be given a diagnosis
APPLYING PLANNED HAPPENSTANCE THEORY TO CAREER COUNSELING
Planned happenstance – taking advantage of chance events in one’s life
Counselors help clients recognize and incorporate chance events into their lives, as well as generate such events
Planned happenstance theory is positive and encouraging (it replaces indecision with open-mindedness)
Five skills are helpful in dealing with chance career opportunities
_ Curiosity
_ Persistence
_ Flexibility
_ Optimism
_ Risk taking
The goal of counseling in dealing with planned happenstance is to initiate a learning process that encourages curiosity and helps clients to take advantage of unplanned events
Four steps to Planned Happenstance Theory – steps may overlap at times
Step 1: Normalize planned happenstance in the client’s history
Step 2: Assist clients to transform curiosity into opportunities for learning and exploration
Step 3: Teach clients to produce desirable chance events
Step 4: Teach clients to overcome blocks to action
Krumboltz’s Career Beliefs Inventory – assesses many of the career beliefs that are potential problems for clients; has 25 scales
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Accurate occupational information is essential to the application of social learning theory
Krumboltz has designed Job Experience Kits - used to simulate occupations; provide exercises that are similar to tasks done by people working in the occupations
Also developed computer simulations of occupations
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
Assessment is not mentioned, but can be useful.
Values inventories can help with planned happenstance.
Interest inventories and ability and aptitude tests can be used.
Krumboltz’s Career Beliefs Inventory can be used at many points in the career decision-making process.
APPLYING SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY TO WOMEN
Women have some control over their environmental forces
Female role models important for women
Unplanned events important in the lives of prominent women
APPLYING SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY TO CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
Not much research
Cultures vary as to which occupations they glamorize or value
Cultures vary as to values such as income or spirituality that they attend to
Collective action can change discriminatory environments
Counselors can help clients deal with discriminatory environments
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Listen to the client to determine the best way to respond to unexpected events
Determine whether the client’s problems fit within the competencies and ethical standards of the counselor
Only work with ethical goals
Individuals’ personalities come more from their learning experiences than from their genetics
Triadic reciprocal interaction system – interaction of the environment, personal factors (memories, beliefs, preferences, and self-perceptions), and actual behavior.
Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory shows how individuals make career decisions that emphasizes the importance of behavior (action) and cognitions (knowing or thinking) in making career decisions, teaching clients career decision techniques and how to use them and examines four basic factors to understand why people choose the work they do as well as other occupationally related decisions.
GENETIC ENDOWMENT
Those aspects of the individual that are inherited or innate rather than learned such as physical appearance, predisposition to illnesses.
Some people are born with special abilities in the arts, writing, music, etc.
The greater an individual’s innate genetic abilities, the more likely she is to respond to learning and teaching.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AND EVENTS
Outside the control of the individual
Social, cultural, political, and economic considerations
Also, climate and geography
Social Factors
Changes in society have had a great impact on available career options
Educational Conditions
The availability of education is influenced by both social and personal factors
One’s school system and the effect of teachers are also significant
Occupational Conditions
Little control over number and nature of job opportunities
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
Career preferences are a result of one’s prior learning experiences
Each person’s learning experience is unique
Two basic types of learning experiences:
Instrumental Learning Experiences (H)
Three Components
Antecedents – refers to almost any type of condition; people respond to antecedents with behavior
Behaviors – may be obvious or subtle, may have impact on others
Consequences – may be obvious or subtle
Example: if someone gets an A on an exam, she will be more likely to continue studying in that field than if she does poorly
Associative Learning Experiences (O)
When an individual pairs a situation that was previously neutral with one that is positive or negative, an associative learning experience occurs
TASK APPROACH SKILLS
Understanding how people approach tasks
Task-approach skills – goal setting, values clarification, generating alternatives, obtaining occupational information ¼thoughts and beliefs arise from these
Interactions among genetic endowment, environmental conditions, and learning experiences lead to skills in doing a variety of tasks
How someone approaches a task depends on previous experience and influences the outcome of the task
CLIENT COGNITIVE AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS
Self-Observation Generalizations about Abilities
_ Based on prior experiences and information individuals have acquired about themselves
_ Making accurate generalizations about themselves may be difficult; may under- or overstate their abilities
_ Accuracy of generalizations is related to comparing to others
Self-Observation Generalizations about Interests
_ Generalizations about what you like and don’t like
_ Interests can be very general or very specific
_ Interest inventories are helpful
Self-Observation Generalizations about Values
_ People make judgments about the desirability of certain behaviors or events
_ From these judgments, people develop personal and work values
Generalizations about the World
_ Besides themselves, people make generalizations about the world in which they live and the people around them
_ The purpose of occupational information and experience is to provide an opportunity to make generalizations about the world
Task-Approach Skills Used in Career Decision Making - Skills learned from a wide variety of tasks
COUNSELOR BEHAVIORAL STRATEGIES
Reinforcement
_ Most important technique, with the broadest use, applies to all phases of career counseling
_ Positive reinforcement increases the occurrence of a response
_ Positive reinforcement in terms of verbal praise is important
Role Models
_ Valuable associative learning experience
_ Counselors can be role models or provide their clients role models
Role Playing
_ Examples: information-seeking interview, job interview
Simulation
_ Doing some of the tasks that an individual in a particular occupation must perform; client can simulate a career experience
COGNITIVE STRATEGIES FOR COUNSELING
Goal Clarification
_ Clear and identifiable goals, restate goals
Counter a Troublesome Belief
_ Reframing – method of dealing with troublesome beliefs
Look for Inconsistencies between Words and Actions
Cognitive Rehearsal
_ Practicing or rehearsing statements that are positive, which may replace negative thoughts they may have about themselves
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY GOALS FOR CAREER COUNSELING
Emphasis on learning
Facilitate the learning of skills, interests, beliefs, values, work habits, and personal qualities that enable clients to create a satisfying life within a constantly changing work environment, learning about self and the environment
Three criteria that influence goals of career counseling
_ People need to expand their capabilities and interests, not base decisions on existing characteristics only
_ People need to prepare for changing work tasks, not assume that occupations will remain stable
_ People need to be empowered to take action, not merely be given a diagnosis
APPLYING PLANNED HAPPENSTANCE THEORY TO CAREER COUNSELING
Planned happenstance – taking advantage of chance events in one’s life
Counselors help clients recognize and incorporate chance events into their lives, as well as generate such events
Planned happenstance theory is positive and encouraging (it replaces indecision with open-mindedness)
Five skills are helpful in dealing with chance career opportunities
_ Curiosity
_ Persistence
_ Flexibility
_ Optimism
_ Risk taking
The goal of counseling in dealing with planned happenstance is to initiate a learning process that encourages curiosity and helps clients to take advantage of unplanned events
Four steps to Planned Happenstance Theory – steps may overlap at times
Step 1: Normalize planned happenstance in the client’s history
Step 2: Assist clients to transform curiosity into opportunities for learning and exploration
Step 3: Teach clients to produce desirable chance events
Step 4: Teach clients to overcome blocks to action
Krumboltz’s Career Beliefs Inventory – assesses many of the career beliefs that are potential problems for clients; has 25 scales
THE ROLE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Accurate occupational information is essential to the application of social learning theory
Krumboltz has designed Job Experience Kits - used to simulate occupations; provide exercises that are similar to tasks done by people working in the occupations
Also developed computer simulations of occupations
THE ROLE OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
Assessment is not mentioned, but can be useful.
Values inventories can help with planned happenstance.
Interest inventories and ability and aptitude tests can be used.
Krumboltz’s Career Beliefs Inventory can be used at many points in the career decision-making process.
APPLYING SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY TO WOMEN
Women have some control over their environmental forces
Female role models important for women
Unplanned events important in the lives of prominent women
APPLYING SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY TO CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS
Not much research
Cultures vary as to which occupations they glamorize or value
Cultures vary as to values such as income or spirituality that they attend to
Collective action can change discriminatory environments
Counselors can help clients deal with discriminatory environments
COUNSELOR ISSUES
Listen to the client to determine the best way to respond to unexpected events
Determine whether the client’s problems fit within the competencies and ethical standards of the counselor
Only work with ethical goals
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